The Good Citizenship of Confucianism

Confucianism is more about human behavior in the context of civilized society. During the Qing Dynasty, Confucian teachings were organized and proclaimed as Chinas state religion. (Yao 28) This political move stained the publics perception of Confucianism, making it even more difficult to be classified as a religion. However, Confucianism is strictly about how to live a morally upright life based on good deeds and good citizenship. Despite this political underpinings, Confucianism remains the ideology of choice for most Chinese. 

Unlike most Western philosophers, Confucius used sayings and maxims to forward his ideas. Confucius adages were very specific to Chinese culture, which explains why his teachings remain misunderstood by the Western world. People who have no knowledge of Chinese life will have a difficult time understanding Confucianism.  Confucianism involves a rigid set of rules that dictates how people should behave in specific social situations. The teachings are wide-ranging and encompass every aspect of living. All of these teachings are practiced through a system of rites that puts people in their proper places, depending on the social situation. Similar to Buddhism, followers of Confucianism believe that self-discipline is key to the attainment of an ideal life.

While history generally regards Confucius as the founder of this religion, Mencius is widely accepted as the one who truly made its tenets applicable in practical life. Because of this, most people believe that Mencius was the most influential follower of Confucianism. It was Mencius who took Confucian beliefs and applied it to human nature. Mencius underscores the importance of social supports in order to maintain and bring out the innate goodness in people.

The principal teaching of Confucianism is virtue or goodness of character based on existing societal norms. Followers of this philosophy believe in the capacity of human beings for greatness and live extraordinary lives. Mencius believes that people are capable of achieving perfection through discipline and conscious effort. Confucianism does not dictate a particular set of rituals and practices. Rather, it provides general guidelines on proprietary behavior. Indeed for all intents and purposes, Confucianism is not a religion, at least not in the conventional sense of the word. It detaches itself from any forms of spiritual thoughts to focus on mans everyday existence in an ordered society as Mencius envisioned it to be. Confucianism does not preoccupy itself with what exists beyond life, rather it dictates how to achieve harmony in the here and now, in our present lives. It does not see beyond anything than what it means to be a good person and a good citizen. This is the reason why Confucianism lends itself well to religious systems because its ideas of virtue and goodness are universal.

However, while not originally intended as a religion, Confucianism does have features that are religious in nature. Confucian followers believe in performing religious rites they believe in the intimate relationship between a divine guiding force, humans, and nature. In fact it was these rituals that were believed to purify people and make them more able to resist temptation. Humanitys oneness with nature and the divine is what gives him the capacity to behave in ways that are morally right and in compliance with what society perceives as acceptable behavior. Confucius himself believed in a divine force and believes that the way of the virtue is in harmony with this guiding force and this view was applied by Mencius to everyday living.

Of course some disagreements are always expected and this is what Xunzi brought to Confucianism  a challenge. Xun Zi was a faithful follower of Confucianism but he disagreed with Mencius and Confucius on one key point  that is man is innately predisposed to do bad things and those bad tendencies can only be restricted through controlling factors such as education and strict adherence to rules and rituals. Unlike Mencius who believed that people are good by nature and the role of society is to preserve this goodness, Xun Zi believed that society acts to limit the bad tendencies of its citizens. This belief made Xun Zi one of the classical proponents of law as a system of punishment for the criminals.

The Spirituality of Daoism
In contrast to Confucianism, Daoism is more spiritual. In Daoism, emptiness is not the absence of form, but liberation from the limitations of substance and materiality. In Emptiness, a person becomes one with truth by becoming detached from everything and visualizing images of higher truths. It means voidness that everything in life is void or empty of substance or self. A thing only becomes meaningful when taken in the context of its relationship with another. Thus, the concept of Emptiness refers to the non-existence of self, and is a necessary stage to the achievement of Emptiness. When a person is emptied of mundane thoughts, he opens himself up to the truths of Daoism and is filled with enlightenment. With constant practice, emptiness, imagery, and enlightenment create within ones self the Perfected state. The Dao, acting like water, fills in the vacuum of emptiness and relies on the interdependence of things. (Bokenkamp  Nickerson, 1999, p. 115)

So central is the concept of Emptiness to LaoZis Daoism that even the scriptures which hold the doctrines and philosophies of Daoism is regarded as only a means to an end. This desire for emptiness is also the desire for happiness, which is an innate desire in all humans. Master Zhuang believes that to pursue ones happiness is a need and that conformity can be detrimental to such pursuit. The best that one can do is to find ones own path in a life of so many forces that pushes and pulls us to many directions.

In Daoism, language and words are seen as impermanent and non-absolute, and thus have no enduring presence. Thus, words are mere instruments  their value lies in their ability to help Daoists accomplish ascendance. In Daoism, the scriptures have no intrinsic value that makes them transcendental. The words or language of the scriptures find meaning when a person deliberates and reflects on what it is saying. The existence of language and the self is only the vehicle with which our consciousness reaches absolute clarity and the enlightenment. The Emptiness in Daoism denies the inherent essence of a thing. To Daoists, there is no singular aspect that defines anything. The definition exists by virtue of our perspective and experience. A thing becomes itself because it was experienced from empty it became real. The Purple Text subtly emphasizes the process towards emptiness and transcendence. The Perfected State, which is the final goal of all Daoists, is an absolute state of acceptance and the absolute absence of discrimination or ignorance. By ignorance.

The Chinese revolution and the failure of the Chinese Communist Party

The Chinese have thrived on tradition and the importance of family values both of which have exhibited themselves through the movements of the communist revolution. They advocated the regulation of the entire community by the State centering their policies on Marxist values and anti-capitalist theories. Pre-1949 China was seen to be drifting towards the western inspired aura of capitalism by the communists who, according to them, would wreak havocs in the forms of economic disparity and uneven distribution of wealth. As such, when the Communist party came to power in 1949, they made sure that their ideologies were enforced either by way of persuasion or force. Their practices were strict and downright brutal as those who opposed them were either converted forcefully or abandoned. An account of their measures is provided by E. Friedmans version of documented narration of a town called Wugong in Raoyang County within the province of Heibei (1991). Friedman concentrated on filling in the gaps of change that history left out while depicting Chinas new found socialist movement and the way it was buttressed by the rural areas.
   
Raoyang was Chinas countryside and up until the end of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th century was no more than a rural district. It had seen little in the way of prosperity and was dotted by peasants and low wage workers who managed themselves by farming crops and livestock. Textile was seemingly the only industry catering to the luxury market with silk as the main product but the County was largely attributed to agricultural produce. In the first half of the 20th century, counties in North China became victims to food shortages and famine that hindered economic prosperity greatly. The Qing dynasty ended its reign in 1917 and was replaced by the Republic of China which ruled till 1949.

During this era, the provincial governments sought to increase tax revenue from the rural provinces (such as Heibei) and were largely successful in doing so. The tax collection system wreaked much grief among the poor since the preferred system made the wealthy residents of a village pay on the poors behalf and later collect the same from them. This collection system gave rise to bullies, oppression from whom caused upheaval within the rural peasants who became increasingly inclined to a change in government. Moreover, beginning from 1939, the Japanese control of North China further curbed local prosperity as the Japanese resorted to exporting the agricultural produce to their homeland. In 1942 and 1943, the decline in crop production did not help Raoyangs case at all. These oppressive exports soon turned into a famine situation in North China and only added to the grievances of the people of Heibei. The Chinese peasantry was overworked and underpaid and was in desperate need of a change.

The looting and pillaging also undermined the capabilities of the honest worker and while Raoyang County itself was not as badly affected as the neighboring Counties (such as Pingshan County), living conditions were still progressively harsh paving way for the Communist take-over. The years 1942-1943 saw immense difficulties as the greater part of North China was hit with drought and famine affecting some hundreds of thousands of people. Raoyang was just as badly affected and was only kept going by the foresight of the Communist heads who taxed the rich in order to serve the poor. Their efforts were especially prominent in Wugong (Li). It was only their involvement in distributing the wealth from the poor to the peasants that kept some from dying of starvation. As a result, the rift towards a communist government became stronger as the support from the rural peasants grew.

The First Failed Attempt of the Chinese Communist Party
The communist party started off as early as 1931 when they tried to form a separate state within the Republic of China called the Chinese Soviet Republic. This Republic, led by Mao Zemin, had its own currency. They did not succeed for too long, and were met with resistance from the early start. Under Mao Zemins supervision, plenty of resistance was offered to the nationalists. However, this attempt at forming a separatist State was flawed because of the nationalist governments constant planning against these emerging communists. When Mao Zemin was later on removed from the communist Red Army leadership and replaced with other more militarily incompetent commanders, Chiang Kai-shek, the Nationalist leader, did well to blow the Communists out of the water and annihilate their group by a series of careful military endeavors. However, Zhou Enlai, part of the Red Army leadership who later became the first Premier of the Peoples Republic of China, was wise to plant his own informants within Chiangs clan and thus keep him informed of later operations. His informants helped him and his commanders evade the assault that Chiang planned in 1934 and eventually lead the nation into communism by the late 40s.
   
The Soviet State was a failed attempt at introducing the country to communism. The nationalists felt constantly threatened by their presence and eventually besieged them for one final time in 1934, so as to topple this State within a State. The Jiangxi State, which had the most concentration of communists and served as their central government, was brought to its knees when the Chinese Red Army suffered many losses at the hands of the nationalists. This was mainly because of the mismanagement that the change in leadership provided. After the Jiangxi Soviet collapsed in 1934, the Soviet continued to exist formally and was only completely annulled in 1937.

Communist Revolution
After the peasants had seen the suffering and disarray that the nationalist governments antics caused during the Japanese occupation in the 40s, the rural districts were ready for a change. The war with the Japanese finally came to an end with them surrendering in 1945, but the traces of their wrath were spread far and beyond rural North China. Between 1943 and 1945, Raoyang and the rest of Heibei saw the worst cases of natural disaster that the country had seen in recent times. On top of that, the Japanese forces were bent upon using the little that was harvested for their own homeland and creating further shortages within rural China. Scarcity of food resources caused the peasants immense grievances over anything else.

According to estimates, 101 of 329 households sold their lands and tools to survive (Li). The shortage was so severe that people had to resort to selling whatever they had that could help them survive, even if it were their own children. The famine itself was not responsible for the rebellion however. Experts suggest that the root cause of all uprisings have to do with the depreciation of the social fabric of the state, which together with famine causes the people enough agony for them to get up and take a stand. The degree of desperation altered the psychology of the locals so adversely that people had to sell their own daughters to stay alive, sell themselves in prearranged prostitution, steal from others and betray. In such a state, morals disappear and give way to unadulterated obscenity. It would not matter if the person being stolen from is poorer or worse off as long as it satisfied the one stealing. Such was the situation of rural China in the late 30s and 40s.
   
The foresight of the communist few enabled them to procure the wealth of the rich in order to feed the poor beginning in 1938. This practice began in Wugong, a village in Raoyang County. The wealthy were taxed in order to literally save the lives of those with nothing. When the Japanese finally left in 1945, it began of a wave of socialist reform. The landlords were urged to forgo their property and leave. Those who posed threats to this regime change were uprooted and expelled from the land and forced to leave their property behind. The process involved the scheme of double reduction, lowering rents and interest rates alike (Li). Thus, the land was reallocated from the rich to the poor and desperately poor alike, so that now they had enough to grow on and sustain. Peasants were understandably relieved since now they had a way of living their lives without fear of uncertainties of food and sustenance. By March 1946, the process of reallocation of land was complete and rural North China was given a means to survive. The Communists were welcome to take over and in 1949 they did, forming the Peoples Republic of China.

Raoyang post 1949
CCP had managed to create a strong base in Wugong thanks to its continued resistance to the Japanese in the 40s, its measures to curb famine by taxing the rich, and converting the village into a prime example of success with organized cooperation amongst the peasants. As the curbs were placed on intra-village activities, concentration was had on the activities and incomes within the village. Wugong rose as a status symbol with its rise in per capita income and rural prosperity. Cultural group events were held within the village for people to meet and function even better as a unit. This was where they chose most of their brides as well. Up until the 80s Wugong thrived with cotton and wheat production becoming much more prosperous than the neighboring regions (Friedman, Pickowicz and Selden).

The socialist movement was led by Mao Zedong. During the collectivization, the rural villagers were restricted to trading within the natural village and were prohibited from engaging in inter-village commerce. Strict adherence to the rules was required by Mao Zedong as he advocated some drastic land reforms in favor of the poorpeasant population. He lodged the Great Leap Forward campaign in 1958 which, together with his other reforms geared towards collectivization created unprecedented levels of famine. The ferocity and self-belief of his campaigns could be judged by the fact that anti Maoist sentiments were rendered immediately punishable under his rule.
   
The collectivization, however, brought with it many hindrances. It created a pattern and market restrictions that kept the villagers from seeking women from places too far away from their own. Prior to the 1950s, the people of Raoyang County relied on other markets for their business as well as cultural developments but this was actively advocated against by Mao Zedong.
   
However, there was a fear within the villagers for a lack of inheritance and the continuation of the family as a result of collectivization (Li). The socialists created a new relationship between the family and the state and effectively put the latter in charge throughout the 50s, 60s and 70s. Wugong by this time had become the prime example of communist success with its relatively greater levels of prosperity. But in all this rush for prosperity and social integration, the socialists created shortages of food and further famine. The Great Leap Forward of Mao Zedong in 1958 proved a failure as it resulted in millions of deaths throughout China accredited to the famine resulting from them. The reeducation process started by Mao Zedong was flawed since it actively shunned those who were against Maoist principles and rendered severe punishments to them. Everyday life became even more difficult with the Cultural Revolution in 1966 which deployed the Red Guards to keep the ordinary citizen in check. Any non revolutionary action was immediately curbed with physical force. It brought education and public transport to a stand-still and politics became the epicenter of daily Chinese life up until the death of Mao Zedong in 1976. From here on out China saw a host of economic reforms and conflicts in the name of power but grew steadily both economically and socially.
   
It was urged that the limited success of the socialist movement was mainly due to the unchanged way of life the peasants were granted under the communist regime. The reason the peasants did not stand up and rebel was because of the grants of means of survival and the seemingly prosperous results Wugong depicted. It was the continuity of life and the desire for change for those in rural China who had seen constant bombardments of natural disasters of malnutrition and lack of resources that kept them from rebelling against the state, even though it was causing unfavorable results. The socialists were allowed to intervene as the peasants supported patriarchal authority with their non intellectual responses thereby creating further problems of famine and shortage of resources, directly attributed to economic mismanagement. The illusion of prosperity remained a prime deciding factor and the Maoists were thus allowed to enforce their ideologies upon the less-than-demanding rural population by the use of force. The result may have been a failed socialist state, but it gave China a clean slate to start building economically upon and become the world player it is today.

Jiang Zemin era in China

In September 1997, the Fifteenth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party took place in Beijing which ended the reign of Deng Xiaoping and marked the rise of Jiang Zemin (Tien, et. al., 2000, p. 1). Though underestimated by Western countries when he took power, Zemin still proved his control by removing corrupt and ambitious party officials and controlling the Peoples Liberation Army or PLA. Under the leadership of Jiang Zemin, the Chinese Communist Party became more focused in advocating foreign ties with the United States of America and other countries abroad, strengthening the fields of science and technology, advancing the economic growth of their country and restructuring of state-owned enterprises or SEOs.

Jiang Zemins leadership circle primarily wanted a stable government which contradicts previous Mao and Deng eras which were thought to be too extreme and dramatic (Unger, 2002, p. 209). There was also a so-called devolution or erosion of authority under Jiang Zemins rule. This means that the people occupying high positions in the government under Jiangs era cannot fully exercise their authority and make commands that will thoroughly implement state policies. The flow of power was downward in this era to such an extent that the centre or main government had lesser control over the initiatives of local authorities which resulted to fragmented power (Unger, 2002, p.211).

Jiang Zemin also focused on allowing private entrepreneurs to join the CCP. On July 1, 2001, Jiang Zemin declared that the CCP would start recruiting professionals and private entrepreneurs for they helped in reconstructing socialism in China (Wong, et. al., 2002, p.112). Through institutionalization of informal politics, Jiang Zemin brought back the formal and informal power but still kept its gap when he retained chairmanship of the Central Military Commission. In general, the CCP became much more inclined in issues not generally tackled by previous leaders such as foreign ties and advancement of their economy under Jiang Zemins era.

Arab Influence in the Islamic World

Saudi Arabia is considered the birthplace of Islam.  It was revealed to the Arab people by trhe Prophet Mohammed who succeeded in converting them to this new faith and abandoning their pagan practices.  But Islam was not only a mere religion, it is a way of life as Mohammed laid down guidelines on how the faithful must live their lives in order to be considered true believers.

Following Mohammeds death, his sucessors (caliphs) had carried on his mission of spreading Islam to the world.  From the Arabian Penunsula, the caliphs launched wave upon wave of invasions of its neighboring regions and beyond, rigorously implanting Islam in these lands, by force whenever it was necessary.  There were others that did not need aggression. They traveled across the seas as missionaries and were able to spread Islam in much more distant shores outside the Middle East.  By the 15th century, Islam had spread as far as Spain in the west (Europe), parts of North Africa, including the Sub-Saharan regions to parts of South Asia and Indonesia in Southeast Asia which remains the most populous Muslim country in the world.  Naturally, along with the spread of Islam, the Arabs had managed to import some of its culture and heritage to these lands (Berkey, 2003). 

The most obvious of them all is the Arabic language which became the official language of the Muslim world, particularly their form of writing which is very apparent in the Quran.  This is why to this day Islamic scholars also have to study Arabic to study the Quran and other teachings of the Prophet even though it Quran is translated into the vernacular.  Muslims outside the Arab world would even adopt Arab-sounding names such as Abdul, Omar, or Faisal.  Islam would also see to it that Arab influence remains as it teaches the faithful to pray five times a day facing Mecca (salat) and take part in a pilgrimage to Mecca (haj) at least once in their lifetime.

But this was the extent of Arab influence to other Muslim states outside the Arab Peninsula.  Like other conquerors before them such as the Persians, Greeks and Romans and even the Mongols who followed after them, the Arab conquerors fell victim to a phenomenon sociologists would call acculturation or (social) assimilation.  As they established autonomous kingdoms or governments in the occupied regions, they have also adapted the cultures of the lands they conquered despite converting majority of its people to Islam.  This is very evident in some Muslim countries such as Iran where majority of its people speak Persian (Farsi), Urdu in Pakistan and in some parts of Afghanistan and even Bahasa in Indonesian for that matter although they continue to write in Arabic text which they adopted into their own language (DeWeese, 1994).  Furthermore, these new Muslims belong to a different racial stock and could not consider themselves Arabs in addition to the fact that some of these lands have different climates and geographic features that is very different from the desert environment of the Middle East which made it impossible for Arab culture to penetrate even deeper to change the local culture which was deeply rooted in these regions.  What happened then was Islam became assimilated to the culture (Lapidus, 2002).

Because of their assimilation of the local cultures, these lands could not be unified into a single Islamic empire or nation especially since Arabic is a foreign culture that could not take root in these regions.  It can be inferred that the influence of Arab culture was limited.

Marriage in Rural Japan The Role of Women in the Family

Gender is one of the most important principles of social stratification in Japanese society. In the 12th century, women could inherit property in their own names without the consent of their fathers, brothers, and husbands. During the Shogunate period, the status of women declined. Peasant women were generally more free than upper-class women. Upper-class women were subject to a loose system of patrilineal and patriarchal ideologies (Allen, 39). This system was supported by the feudal government as part of its efforts of social control.
   
During the period of isolation, Japanese women from all classes were restricted to the household. Marriage was a matter of tradition rather than choice. Marriage was arranged and highly traditional. Women were commanded to respect and please their husbands, protect the household from vices, and care for the needs of the children. Upper-class women were prohibited from engaging in business or economic activities after marriage (Allen, 40). They were also forbidden to inherit or own property. Women, in general, were even prohibited from asserting personal opinion to their husbands. Upperclass women were prized gifts to members of the aristocracy. More often, arranged marriage created familial bonds between warring factions. It also served to strengthen family inheritance (Allen, 39).
   
In the Meiji period, urbanization and industrialization reduced the authority of fathers and husbands. At the same time, however, women were denied legal rights in the Meiji Civil Code. The Code essentially subjected women to the authority of household heads (either the fathers or husbands). Peasant women were more or less unaffected by this trend. By 1930, the government began to encourage the formation of womens associations and chambers.
  
 In rural areas, however, the traditional face of marriage and family life remained untouched by these developments. Japanese women were restricted to the household. They were required to treat their husbands as superiors (as in many parts of East Asia). They were forbidden to participate in community meetings  as such activity was reserved for men. Marriage was still an obligation rather than a choice.
   
After the Second World War, the position of women gradually improved (Allen, 40). The 1947 Constitution provided an equal rights clause. Individual rights were given priority over obligation to family. Women were given the right to choose spouses and occupations, to inherit and own property, and to retain the custody of children.
   
As early as 1946, the right to vote was bestowed on all Japanese women. Women were now given the opportunity to participate in community affairs, to create exclusive associations, and to engage in economic activities. Education was modernized to provide women opportunities to find good occupations. Postwar reforms required that women receive equal pay for equal work. By 1986, there were only few barriers to womens equal participation in Japanese society (achieved with the passage of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law).
   
Gender equality and development were certainly far from realization as far as women were concerned. This is the case of Haruko, a frustrated, hard-working Japanese woman in a rural village.
   
The book is divided into three major parts. The first part deals with personal characteristics of Haruko. The second part discusses the nature of farm family. The past part deals with the farm community itself. The ethnography has no transition. It relies on narratives to give a critical view of farm family life, village conditions, and the frustrations of a modern rural woman.
   
Haruko is a farmers wife, tending for the needs of the household. After Bernsteins initial meeting with Haruko, the latter worries that she would not be able to accommodate her guest with devoted care such as making breakfast, mending and ironing clothes, and cleaning her room. As Bernstein describes
 Immediately his wife, Haruko, appeared beyond an open sliding door. She was standing a foot below us on the stone ground of the corridor that ran along one side of the house from the entryway in the front of the kitchen in the back. Before I could even rattle off apparopriate words of greeting, she began apologizing or, rather, explaining why it was clearly impossible for me to stay with her family as we had arranged (5).
She also has a very big concern with clothing and appearance. This obsession is directed not to her husband but to other women.
   
Haruko, like the women of the 19th century, is a traditionalist. She wants to be in charge of the household. She caters the immediate needs of her husband. However, her responsibilities are not limited to the household. She is responsible for organizing a small women association. She participates in community affairs.
   
In the introduction, Bernstein provides a vivid description of Haruko
For most of her life, however, Harukos world was limited to the hamlet in which she grew up and the hamlet of Bessho, to which she went when she was married, and her days were either spent in the rice paddies and vegetable fields or in the house of her husbands parents  Although she repeatedly insisted that she was a typical Japanese farm woman, her outgoing personality and her willingness to share her innermost thoughts with me made her unique among the women of her community (XV).
   
Although Haruko is a traditional Japanese woman, she is open to possibilities and opportunities. She recognizes the need for restructuring the village to improve the standard of living. She also recognizes the need for institutionalizing education in the village. According to her, education is the lifeblood of development in the village (177).
   
Perhaps, Harukos outlook as a traditional Japanese woman has something to do with her immediate environment. The village is a backward rural area  with no electricity and poor sanitation. Haruko is traditionally called to perform household chores to augment these deficiencies.
   
If, perhaps, Haruko is to live in the city, it would be awkward to perform the traditional duties of women. It would be self-defeating for a modern individual to remained attached to the old ways of Japanese society. In any case, it would also be self-defeating if Haruko would forget thr roots of modernity.
  
Haruko is a traditional-modern woman who follows the old ways while maintaining self-independence. What the books tells the reader is that the traditional roles of women are still observable in rural areas and such roles are never in conflict with the modern connotation of womanhood, at least in the eyes of Japanese women. Suffice it to say, many Japanese women adopts this claim as true.
  
 Traditional Japanese lifestyle has never been completely erased. In the documentary Farm Song (1979), John Nathan paints a vivid view of traditional Japanese lifestyle. Farm Song focuses on that two centuries pattern of life reenacted day by day within the Kato family and on the contemporary human response to it. The film observes the family engaged in the familiar rhythms of farm life  harvesting their rice, celebrating the New Year with a week of ritual activity and joyful frivolity, waiting out on the long winter when the farm lies buried under four feet of snow, then beginning all over again with planting in the spring.
   
Farm Song gently probes beneath the surface of ritualized activities and relationships to disclose how each family member reflectson his or her own role in life.
   
Women are traditionally portrayed as they were 300 years ago. Hisae, the woman of the household, fulfills the responsibilities of wife, mother, and daughter. She provides for the effectual needs of the household. Her husband works in the rice paddies. Educating the children is her main task. She must also keep the household clean, in order, and free from bad omens. What is really surprising is that this documentary is based on rural life in the 1970s  a period which is both modern and non-traditional.
   
The implications of this documentary are as follows 1) women still fulfills the roles of a traditional wife in rural communities, 2) the traditional roles (in this case) are family-based (rather than community), and 3) gender is the main determinant of work attitudes. The woman is expected to fulfill her duties as a wife, daughter, and mother without complain. She is also expected to provide additional provisions for appendage families. In short, the life of a traditional married Japanese woman is restrictive and routinary.

Vietnam from 1945-1975

The myriad of forces at work in Vietnam during 1945-1975 war are much crucial in the manner they affected the entire world. To understand these effects it is paramount to reflect on the actual concepts of this war. Examining the genesis of Vietnam War, some of the underlying factors are as a result of cold war which had become a foremost characteristic of the post 1945 world.  This was another cardinal change in the global system that was concurrently taking place the closing stages of Europes five-century-ascendancy of the non-European world. A number of new autonomous states materialized from the remains of European legalism, and Cold War antagonism was punctually extended to several of these new states. From such observation, it is evident that Vietnam War was as a result of legacy of France negligence to decimate nationalist forces in Indochina as it fought to reclaim its colonial supremacy after World War II. Under the supervision of Ho Chi Minh, a communist oriented movement-the Viet Minh-staged a political and armed resistance for Vietnamese independence. Vietnam had achieved its sovereignty from France in 1954.

The motherland was separated into North and South. The North had a communist regime led by Ho Chi Minh. The South had an anti-communist regime led by Ngo Dinh Diem.  The woes and effects of Vietnam War took a clandestine dimension when the communist victory in the 1949 Chinese civil war as well as Chinese involvement against U.N. in Korea. Basically, the U.S.read this as a Chinese policy of cold war politic. These occurrences prompted the US to be involved in Vietnam as to contain the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, to achieve this strategy, the U.S.supported the anti-communist state, the republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in its armed struggle against communist take over.
Understanding the myriad forces at work in Vietnam from 1945-1975

The real scope of Vietnam War has never been established, the myriad of forces behind this war included, opportunism, greed as well as a desire to protect individual state supremacy over others. It should be agreed that, these forces had much more effects either socially, politically and economically to both the ordinary peasants as well as those who were waging the onslaught. For instance, Phillip Caputo was at one time a marine lieutenant during the primary period of the Vietnam War.  It quite paramount to aver that, some of the prevailing forces such as the horror of human abuse, blatant execution of innocent citizens impacted negatively on him. This is vividly painted in his captivating novel Rumor of War.

Exploring the argument he has so strongly established in this book, it is apparent that, as an American he viewed the war as an act of wastage, however, recounting the aspects of human abuses, diseases, hunger and the danger of falling into the hands of so called enemies of the state, he presents a personal story that provides a deep insight in the manner and degree of the way the way affected him. Caputo eyewitnesses the deaths of both friends and foes, and his youthful optimism are systematically wrecked down by the terrors he participates in and scrutinizes in Vietnam.

For instance, Caputo is propelled to allow his defeated, tired and depressed angry platoon to wreck havoc on a Vietnamese village without any provocation. This paints a picture of what in principle impacted Caputo. Thus, it can be said psychological aspects played a significant role in regard to Caputo. This can be linked to the fact that, as a leader of a platoon he was entitled to secure their safety and more provide the much needed direction, which means the soldiers looked at him for inspiration and encouragement. But fighting unseen enemy, death of his soldiers at the hands of the enemy had its own consequences.

Therefore, to better understand the effects of numeral forces behind the Vietnam War and their effect on Caputo as soldier, it crucial to delve into the aspect of psychological effects. Typically, psychological combat is a dynamic concept which defines a broad and varied process. Hence, such issues as psychiatric casualties, physiology of combat as well as eventual manipulations, had a long lasting impact. Hence, in his book he attempts to assert that, positive aspects of war are often manipulated, exaggerated and also aggrandized in order to blackmail the populace while glorifying political and military personally.

This altercation vehemently drove Caputo to rethink his position as a soldier. It is apparent that, political manipulations, also played significant roles, and this also greatly affected him. Therefore by gaining insight into the attrition of this war, it is obvious that, most of the soldiers suffered from a myriad of mental setbacks due to they faced. Despite the fact that, a legacy of lies prevailed, he had a chance to understand the scope of stress linked to close combat in regard to his platoon, comparing this with other acts of war, it is instrumental to argue that, combat fatigue, post traumatic stress disorders became apparent among the soldiers.

These observations greatly impacted on his personal perception of war, and he asserts And so I learned about the wide gulf that divides the facts from the truth. 1.  therefore, it can be said, military and economic factors also had a significant impact on his personal life, it should be noted that, in the book Rumors of War he has documented an instance of being tried in a military court for killing, on a psychological aspect he stated They had taught us to kill and had told us to kill, and now they were going to court-martial us for killing.1. This account presented a conflicting analysis in regard to the future of Caputo both as a soldier and a veteran, having served, it is apparent that he was mentally and socially disgusted by the eventual concept of war, the manner by which the military personnel were being exposed to devastating  environment.

The hold up suffered by the U.S. soldiers in the Vietnam conflict was embedded in a breakdown of stratagem. Indeed, perchance no battle in American history demonstrates more evidently both the challenges of making sound tactical judgments and the calamitous cost of a lack of lucid strategic vision.  Hence, the Vietnam War offers a cautionary account for U.S. political and armed forces decision-makers about the critical magnitude of thinking evidently about approach.  Therefore, the failure by the military chiefs, impacted on the life of Caputo I that, he played a role pertaining the forces that had an impact on the common live of Vietnamese, this is greatly linked to the fact that, though he was just but a lieutenant, his decisions had a destabilizing effects on both ordinary setup of the soldiers and the people he was fighting and protecting.
By erroneously involving military strategy to public policy and by unacceptably understanding the nature of the clash, the United States fatigued itself in opposition to a secondary adversary in South Vietnam. The American disappointments in Vietnam also shoot from attempting to fight a customary conventional war when the conflicts character called for a counterinsurgency endeavor. 

Therefore Top military chiefs unable to work out the problem, refused to execute such a strategy in spite of evidence of its effectiveness. And the consequences were a high number of American soldiers who either lost their live or limbs. Such a scenario impacted negatively on Caputo, though he in one way or the other contributed in destroying Vietnamese families, the atrocious decisions changed his perception of war and politics. Thus to understand the effects of Vietnam war on both Hayslip and Caputo, I find it vital to delve into the debate which critically related to the controversy which regarded and questioned the problems of southeast Asia, whether they were political, economic or rather military 2.  The quandary in Vietnam was military, and the effect saw the destruction of human lives and properties. Such scenarios vehemently impacted on the way both Hayslip and Caputo viewed the whole concept of war. It should be noted that, despite psychological changes, the war provided a new dimension as well as meaning to both.

For instance, Hayslip who happens to a native of Vietnam had suffered at the hands of her people, despite the fact that, she had also involved herself in prostitution. Such precedents changed her scope of how humans operate when provoked. More so, the forces behind the invasion of her country provided her with a profound understanding of freedom and patriotism. Therefore, to examine the innate forces that drastically affected her social life, and transformed her imagination of a free world. In her book When Heaven and Earth Changed Places, she presents a candid analysis of the war, how families were shattered, women were raped, men tortured and were children massacured, when American in the race to engage the viet-coms destroyed the environment through the use of chemicals. From the point of view in regard to the two authors, political forces played the critical role in defining the future of the countries involved in this war. Though both witnessed the horrors of this war, it is the pain, and the reality of what the defenseless Vietnamese were going through that strongly changed the perception of Hayslip, while on the other hand Caputo seems to have been moved by the atrocious but criminal activities that were being fanned by politicians as well as top military personnel who believed the soldiers were fighting for a national cause 3.

However, as Caputo later realized, it was a war that was destroying both the life of the enemy as well as the soldiers in combat. Despite such social aspects as politics,econmics and religion that significantly influenced or rather impacted on the manner both authors reacted towards the effects of the war Hayslip seems to have adopted a more open and human approach hence she wrote Most of you who read this book have not lived my kind of life. By the grace of fate or luck or god, you do not know how tough it is to stay alive although now you encompass some idea ... Right now, however, there are millions of additional deprived people around the world--girls, boys, men, and women--who live their lives the way I did in order to survive 4. Looking at the diverse factors that led to Vietnam War, it is apparent that some people like Caputo joined the army as patriots, but when it came to the issue of the Vietnam War history has it that, most of those who were drafted were principally employed as part of a larger plan to contain communist China. And this foresaw the U.S. deploys a contingent of over 400,000 men and women who were engaged in air and naval battle against the North Vietnam.

The American armed effort aggravated rigid domestic and international resistance this led to tense civil-military relations. Exploring such factors, the question U.S. death squads in Vietnam similarly had the same psychological impact on Caputo,from the vivid details of war in his book, there was no justiable cause for the pain the people of Vietnam were subjected. Thus, the American endorsement of search and destroy strategy demoralized many soldiers including Caputo.  It is instrumental to point to the fact that, acts of sabotage, use of excessive air power, extensive use of chemical weapon as well as the violation of various humanitarian aspects of individual rights can also be said to other factors that impacted on both Hayslip and Caputo.

This can be linked to the fact that, both have strongly engaged on the devastating effects of this war as well as personal encounter of what the individual author went through. Therefore, looking at the historical records pertaining to this war both authors have no common connection apart from the individual encounter in Vietnam. All in all, it is prudence to aver that, they changed for the better and the Vietnam experience changed their individual opinion regarding human dignity.

The nature of the circumstances an individual encountered greatly shaped his imagination of the political world. Thus, it is instrumental to  state that, the prevailing economic, political and social conditions during the Vietnam war, had a profound impact  on both Caputo and Hayslip, this is evidenced by the manner they have handled the whole scenario of this aggression.  Though, there some critical differences between the two authors, however, it is evident that, the political and ideological forces behind the war helped them to rationalize on the concept that, the Americans were pushing for their foreign policies and more so the Chinese or rather communism expansion was one of key subjects of Americas involvement in this war.

Hence, this acted as an opener for the two dynamic authors, and this resulted in them accepting that, being involved in acts of war in opposition to another nation, there lives a degree of improbability in provisos of the enemys reactions.  And this is an indication that war inspires an erratic psychology and brings to mind strong emotions that flout systems analysis quantification. Therefore, the forces behind the Vietnam War in regard to Americas participation, as an imperative to contain communism, the confrontation was only made feasible through lies and fraud designed for the American public 2

There is a threat that one can gain knowledge of, regarding wrong lessons. All conflicts are restricted to some extent. There is nothing intrinsically wrong in restraining the use of might as long as the channels employed are associated with tactical aims and objectives. The procedures of shaping the means to utilize must begin with a clearly affirmed policy goal or purpose. Therefore, senior armed forces advisers and commanding officers ought to have formulated a military approach. However, in regard to Caputo, the military fought blindly, while the politicians fuelled the war, it paramount to note that, the consequences of Vietnam War greatly affected American political culture as well as their foreign policy. It is instrumental to aver that, the war which equally changed the Vietnams political landscape provided a fundamental lesson to Hayslip, in that, from what he went through, she developed an attitude to respect human life.

On the other hand, the Vietnam aggression, helped in molding a new personality, this is evident by the manner Caputo handled his journalistic work and went back to Vietnam, not as a soldier but as a newsman to witness the fall of Saigon. Therefore, may I argue that, the war gave the two authors basic lessons on the importance of making rational decisions. Hence, Hayslip retorted Like me, they did not solicit for the wars that consumed them. They request only for peace--the liberty to love and live a complete life--and nothing more. I ask only that you unlock your heart and intellect to them, as you have opened it to me by reading this book, and do not think that our story is over 4.

Chinas Population

Qn1 During the first 7 years following the establishment of the Peoples Republic in 1949, Chinas economy escalated considerably, thereby improving the lives of many people. Besides, there was peace, almost adequate food for everybody, as well as great extension of medical and health services. These government initiatives drastically decreased death rates emanating from famine and diseases. As such, improved social conditions as well as food security favored population growth from 1950s to 1990s. 

Qn2 I agree with Maos population thought, because population has never been a problem to any country and China is no exception. Just as Mao uttered, people are the greatest asset to a country, without which economic development suffers human resource deficiency. Worries about population growth are groundless, as this demonstrates the superiority of a particular society. I as well agree with Maos thought because, though population increase comes along with a number of substantial problems, Mao acknowledges this, but maintains that the benefits of population increase to a country like China outweigh the anticipated problems.

Qn3 The obvious characteristic is that Chinas population is extremely large, and that it augments rapidly. In 1982 for instance, Chinas population almost equaled the total population of Africa, Europe, and Oceania put together. Secondly, Chinas population is unevenly distributed. The South East part of China is densely populated than the North West part. Finally, approximately eighty percent of the Chinese population lives in rural areas, and farming population is therefore enormous.