Jiang Zemin era in China

In September 1997, the Fifteenth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party took place in Beijing which ended the reign of Deng Xiaoping and marked the rise of Jiang Zemin (Tien, et. al., 2000, p. 1). Though underestimated by Western countries when he took power, Zemin still proved his control by removing corrupt and ambitious party officials and controlling the Peoples Liberation Army or PLA. Under the leadership of Jiang Zemin, the Chinese Communist Party became more focused in advocating foreign ties with the United States of America and other countries abroad, strengthening the fields of science and technology, advancing the economic growth of their country and restructuring of state-owned enterprises or SEOs.

Jiang Zemins leadership circle primarily wanted a stable government which contradicts previous Mao and Deng eras which were thought to be too extreme and dramatic (Unger, 2002, p. 209). There was also a so-called devolution or erosion of authority under Jiang Zemins rule. This means that the people occupying high positions in the government under Jiangs era cannot fully exercise their authority and make commands that will thoroughly implement state policies. The flow of power was downward in this era to such an extent that the centre or main government had lesser control over the initiatives of local authorities which resulted to fragmented power (Unger, 2002, p.211).

Jiang Zemin also focused on allowing private entrepreneurs to join the CCP. On July 1, 2001, Jiang Zemin declared that the CCP would start recruiting professionals and private entrepreneurs for they helped in reconstructing socialism in China (Wong, et. al., 2002, p.112). Through institutionalization of informal politics, Jiang Zemin brought back the formal and informal power but still kept its gap when he retained chairmanship of the Central Military Commission. In general, the CCP became much more inclined in issues not generally tackled by previous leaders such as foreign ties and advancement of their economy under Jiang Zemins era.

Arab Influence in the Islamic World

Saudi Arabia is considered the birthplace of Islam.  It was revealed to the Arab people by trhe Prophet Mohammed who succeeded in converting them to this new faith and abandoning their pagan practices.  But Islam was not only a mere religion, it is a way of life as Mohammed laid down guidelines on how the faithful must live their lives in order to be considered true believers.

Following Mohammeds death, his sucessors (caliphs) had carried on his mission of spreading Islam to the world.  From the Arabian Penunsula, the caliphs launched wave upon wave of invasions of its neighboring regions and beyond, rigorously implanting Islam in these lands, by force whenever it was necessary.  There were others that did not need aggression. They traveled across the seas as missionaries and were able to spread Islam in much more distant shores outside the Middle East.  By the 15th century, Islam had spread as far as Spain in the west (Europe), parts of North Africa, including the Sub-Saharan regions to parts of South Asia and Indonesia in Southeast Asia which remains the most populous Muslim country in the world.  Naturally, along with the spread of Islam, the Arabs had managed to import some of its culture and heritage to these lands (Berkey, 2003). 

The most obvious of them all is the Arabic language which became the official language of the Muslim world, particularly their form of writing which is very apparent in the Quran.  This is why to this day Islamic scholars also have to study Arabic to study the Quran and other teachings of the Prophet even though it Quran is translated into the vernacular.  Muslims outside the Arab world would even adopt Arab-sounding names such as Abdul, Omar, or Faisal.  Islam would also see to it that Arab influence remains as it teaches the faithful to pray five times a day facing Mecca (salat) and take part in a pilgrimage to Mecca (haj) at least once in their lifetime.

But this was the extent of Arab influence to other Muslim states outside the Arab Peninsula.  Like other conquerors before them such as the Persians, Greeks and Romans and even the Mongols who followed after them, the Arab conquerors fell victim to a phenomenon sociologists would call acculturation or (social) assimilation.  As they established autonomous kingdoms or governments in the occupied regions, they have also adapted the cultures of the lands they conquered despite converting majority of its people to Islam.  This is very evident in some Muslim countries such as Iran where majority of its people speak Persian (Farsi), Urdu in Pakistan and in some parts of Afghanistan and even Bahasa in Indonesian for that matter although they continue to write in Arabic text which they adopted into their own language (DeWeese, 1994).  Furthermore, these new Muslims belong to a different racial stock and could not consider themselves Arabs in addition to the fact that some of these lands have different climates and geographic features that is very different from the desert environment of the Middle East which made it impossible for Arab culture to penetrate even deeper to change the local culture which was deeply rooted in these regions.  What happened then was Islam became assimilated to the culture (Lapidus, 2002).

Because of their assimilation of the local cultures, these lands could not be unified into a single Islamic empire or nation especially since Arabic is a foreign culture that could not take root in these regions.  It can be inferred that the influence of Arab culture was limited.

Marriage in Rural Japan The Role of Women in the Family

Gender is one of the most important principles of social stratification in Japanese society. In the 12th century, women could inherit property in their own names without the consent of their fathers, brothers, and husbands. During the Shogunate period, the status of women declined. Peasant women were generally more free than upper-class women. Upper-class women were subject to a loose system of patrilineal and patriarchal ideologies (Allen, 39). This system was supported by the feudal government as part of its efforts of social control.
   
During the period of isolation, Japanese women from all classes were restricted to the household. Marriage was a matter of tradition rather than choice. Marriage was arranged and highly traditional. Women were commanded to respect and please their husbands, protect the household from vices, and care for the needs of the children. Upper-class women were prohibited from engaging in business or economic activities after marriage (Allen, 40). They were also forbidden to inherit or own property. Women, in general, were even prohibited from asserting personal opinion to their husbands. Upperclass women were prized gifts to members of the aristocracy. More often, arranged marriage created familial bonds between warring factions. It also served to strengthen family inheritance (Allen, 39).
   
In the Meiji period, urbanization and industrialization reduced the authority of fathers and husbands. At the same time, however, women were denied legal rights in the Meiji Civil Code. The Code essentially subjected women to the authority of household heads (either the fathers or husbands). Peasant women were more or less unaffected by this trend. By 1930, the government began to encourage the formation of womens associations and chambers.
  
 In rural areas, however, the traditional face of marriage and family life remained untouched by these developments. Japanese women were restricted to the household. They were required to treat their husbands as superiors (as in many parts of East Asia). They were forbidden to participate in community meetings  as such activity was reserved for men. Marriage was still an obligation rather than a choice.
   
After the Second World War, the position of women gradually improved (Allen, 40). The 1947 Constitution provided an equal rights clause. Individual rights were given priority over obligation to family. Women were given the right to choose spouses and occupations, to inherit and own property, and to retain the custody of children.
   
As early as 1946, the right to vote was bestowed on all Japanese women. Women were now given the opportunity to participate in community affairs, to create exclusive associations, and to engage in economic activities. Education was modernized to provide women opportunities to find good occupations. Postwar reforms required that women receive equal pay for equal work. By 1986, there were only few barriers to womens equal participation in Japanese society (achieved with the passage of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law).
   
Gender equality and development were certainly far from realization as far as women were concerned. This is the case of Haruko, a frustrated, hard-working Japanese woman in a rural village.
   
The book is divided into three major parts. The first part deals with personal characteristics of Haruko. The second part discusses the nature of farm family. The past part deals with the farm community itself. The ethnography has no transition. It relies on narratives to give a critical view of farm family life, village conditions, and the frustrations of a modern rural woman.
   
Haruko is a farmers wife, tending for the needs of the household. After Bernsteins initial meeting with Haruko, the latter worries that she would not be able to accommodate her guest with devoted care such as making breakfast, mending and ironing clothes, and cleaning her room. As Bernstein describes
 Immediately his wife, Haruko, appeared beyond an open sliding door. She was standing a foot below us on the stone ground of the corridor that ran along one side of the house from the entryway in the front of the kitchen in the back. Before I could even rattle off apparopriate words of greeting, she began apologizing or, rather, explaining why it was clearly impossible for me to stay with her family as we had arranged (5).
She also has a very big concern with clothing and appearance. This obsession is directed not to her husband but to other women.
   
Haruko, like the women of the 19th century, is a traditionalist. She wants to be in charge of the household. She caters the immediate needs of her husband. However, her responsibilities are not limited to the household. She is responsible for organizing a small women association. She participates in community affairs.
   
In the introduction, Bernstein provides a vivid description of Haruko
For most of her life, however, Harukos world was limited to the hamlet in which she grew up and the hamlet of Bessho, to which she went when she was married, and her days were either spent in the rice paddies and vegetable fields or in the house of her husbands parents  Although she repeatedly insisted that she was a typical Japanese farm woman, her outgoing personality and her willingness to share her innermost thoughts with me made her unique among the women of her community (XV).
   
Although Haruko is a traditional Japanese woman, she is open to possibilities and opportunities. She recognizes the need for restructuring the village to improve the standard of living. She also recognizes the need for institutionalizing education in the village. According to her, education is the lifeblood of development in the village (177).
   
Perhaps, Harukos outlook as a traditional Japanese woman has something to do with her immediate environment. The village is a backward rural area  with no electricity and poor sanitation. Haruko is traditionally called to perform household chores to augment these deficiencies.
   
If, perhaps, Haruko is to live in the city, it would be awkward to perform the traditional duties of women. It would be self-defeating for a modern individual to remained attached to the old ways of Japanese society. In any case, it would also be self-defeating if Haruko would forget thr roots of modernity.
  
Haruko is a traditional-modern woman who follows the old ways while maintaining self-independence. What the books tells the reader is that the traditional roles of women are still observable in rural areas and such roles are never in conflict with the modern connotation of womanhood, at least in the eyes of Japanese women. Suffice it to say, many Japanese women adopts this claim as true.
  
 Traditional Japanese lifestyle has never been completely erased. In the documentary Farm Song (1979), John Nathan paints a vivid view of traditional Japanese lifestyle. Farm Song focuses on that two centuries pattern of life reenacted day by day within the Kato family and on the contemporary human response to it. The film observes the family engaged in the familiar rhythms of farm life  harvesting their rice, celebrating the New Year with a week of ritual activity and joyful frivolity, waiting out on the long winter when the farm lies buried under four feet of snow, then beginning all over again with planting in the spring.
   
Farm Song gently probes beneath the surface of ritualized activities and relationships to disclose how each family member reflectson his or her own role in life.
   
Women are traditionally portrayed as they were 300 years ago. Hisae, the woman of the household, fulfills the responsibilities of wife, mother, and daughter. She provides for the effectual needs of the household. Her husband works in the rice paddies. Educating the children is her main task. She must also keep the household clean, in order, and free from bad omens. What is really surprising is that this documentary is based on rural life in the 1970s  a period which is both modern and non-traditional.
   
The implications of this documentary are as follows 1) women still fulfills the roles of a traditional wife in rural communities, 2) the traditional roles (in this case) are family-based (rather than community), and 3) gender is the main determinant of work attitudes. The woman is expected to fulfill her duties as a wife, daughter, and mother without complain. She is also expected to provide additional provisions for appendage families. In short, the life of a traditional married Japanese woman is restrictive and routinary.

Vietnam from 1945-1975

The myriad of forces at work in Vietnam during 1945-1975 war are much crucial in the manner they affected the entire world. To understand these effects it is paramount to reflect on the actual concepts of this war. Examining the genesis of Vietnam War, some of the underlying factors are as a result of cold war which had become a foremost characteristic of the post 1945 world.  This was another cardinal change in the global system that was concurrently taking place the closing stages of Europes five-century-ascendancy of the non-European world. A number of new autonomous states materialized from the remains of European legalism, and Cold War antagonism was punctually extended to several of these new states. From such observation, it is evident that Vietnam War was as a result of legacy of France negligence to decimate nationalist forces in Indochina as it fought to reclaim its colonial supremacy after World War II. Under the supervision of Ho Chi Minh, a communist oriented movement-the Viet Minh-staged a political and armed resistance for Vietnamese independence. Vietnam had achieved its sovereignty from France in 1954.

The motherland was separated into North and South. The North had a communist regime led by Ho Chi Minh. The South had an anti-communist regime led by Ngo Dinh Diem.  The woes and effects of Vietnam War took a clandestine dimension when the communist victory in the 1949 Chinese civil war as well as Chinese involvement against U.N. in Korea. Basically, the U.S.read this as a Chinese policy of cold war politic. These occurrences prompted the US to be involved in Vietnam as to contain the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, to achieve this strategy, the U.S.supported the anti-communist state, the republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in its armed struggle against communist take over.
Understanding the myriad forces at work in Vietnam from 1945-1975

The real scope of Vietnam War has never been established, the myriad of forces behind this war included, opportunism, greed as well as a desire to protect individual state supremacy over others. It should be agreed that, these forces had much more effects either socially, politically and economically to both the ordinary peasants as well as those who were waging the onslaught. For instance, Phillip Caputo was at one time a marine lieutenant during the primary period of the Vietnam War.  It quite paramount to aver that, some of the prevailing forces such as the horror of human abuse, blatant execution of innocent citizens impacted negatively on him. This is vividly painted in his captivating novel Rumor of War.

Exploring the argument he has so strongly established in this book, it is apparent that, as an American he viewed the war as an act of wastage, however, recounting the aspects of human abuses, diseases, hunger and the danger of falling into the hands of so called enemies of the state, he presents a personal story that provides a deep insight in the manner and degree of the way the way affected him. Caputo eyewitnesses the deaths of both friends and foes, and his youthful optimism are systematically wrecked down by the terrors he participates in and scrutinizes in Vietnam.

For instance, Caputo is propelled to allow his defeated, tired and depressed angry platoon to wreck havoc on a Vietnamese village without any provocation. This paints a picture of what in principle impacted Caputo. Thus, it can be said psychological aspects played a significant role in regard to Caputo. This can be linked to the fact that, as a leader of a platoon he was entitled to secure their safety and more provide the much needed direction, which means the soldiers looked at him for inspiration and encouragement. But fighting unseen enemy, death of his soldiers at the hands of the enemy had its own consequences.

Therefore, to better understand the effects of numeral forces behind the Vietnam War and their effect on Caputo as soldier, it crucial to delve into the aspect of psychological effects. Typically, psychological combat is a dynamic concept which defines a broad and varied process. Hence, such issues as psychiatric casualties, physiology of combat as well as eventual manipulations, had a long lasting impact. Hence, in his book he attempts to assert that, positive aspects of war are often manipulated, exaggerated and also aggrandized in order to blackmail the populace while glorifying political and military personally.

This altercation vehemently drove Caputo to rethink his position as a soldier. It is apparent that, political manipulations, also played significant roles, and this also greatly affected him. Therefore by gaining insight into the attrition of this war, it is obvious that, most of the soldiers suffered from a myriad of mental setbacks due to they faced. Despite the fact that, a legacy of lies prevailed, he had a chance to understand the scope of stress linked to close combat in regard to his platoon, comparing this with other acts of war, it is instrumental to argue that, combat fatigue, post traumatic stress disorders became apparent among the soldiers.

These observations greatly impacted on his personal perception of war, and he asserts And so I learned about the wide gulf that divides the facts from the truth. 1.  therefore, it can be said, military and economic factors also had a significant impact on his personal life, it should be noted that, in the book Rumors of War he has documented an instance of being tried in a military court for killing, on a psychological aspect he stated They had taught us to kill and had told us to kill, and now they were going to court-martial us for killing.1. This account presented a conflicting analysis in regard to the future of Caputo both as a soldier and a veteran, having served, it is apparent that he was mentally and socially disgusted by the eventual concept of war, the manner by which the military personnel were being exposed to devastating  environment.

The hold up suffered by the U.S. soldiers in the Vietnam conflict was embedded in a breakdown of stratagem. Indeed, perchance no battle in American history demonstrates more evidently both the challenges of making sound tactical judgments and the calamitous cost of a lack of lucid strategic vision.  Hence, the Vietnam War offers a cautionary account for U.S. political and armed forces decision-makers about the critical magnitude of thinking evidently about approach.  Therefore, the failure by the military chiefs, impacted on the life of Caputo I that, he played a role pertaining the forces that had an impact on the common live of Vietnamese, this is greatly linked to the fact that, though he was just but a lieutenant, his decisions had a destabilizing effects on both ordinary setup of the soldiers and the people he was fighting and protecting.
By erroneously involving military strategy to public policy and by unacceptably understanding the nature of the clash, the United States fatigued itself in opposition to a secondary adversary in South Vietnam. The American disappointments in Vietnam also shoot from attempting to fight a customary conventional war when the conflicts character called for a counterinsurgency endeavor. 

Therefore Top military chiefs unable to work out the problem, refused to execute such a strategy in spite of evidence of its effectiveness. And the consequences were a high number of American soldiers who either lost their live or limbs. Such a scenario impacted negatively on Caputo, though he in one way or the other contributed in destroying Vietnamese families, the atrocious decisions changed his perception of war and politics. Thus to understand the effects of Vietnam war on both Hayslip and Caputo, I find it vital to delve into the debate which critically related to the controversy which regarded and questioned the problems of southeast Asia, whether they were political, economic or rather military 2.  The quandary in Vietnam was military, and the effect saw the destruction of human lives and properties. Such scenarios vehemently impacted on the way both Hayslip and Caputo viewed the whole concept of war. It should be noted that, despite psychological changes, the war provided a new dimension as well as meaning to both.

For instance, Hayslip who happens to a native of Vietnam had suffered at the hands of her people, despite the fact that, she had also involved herself in prostitution. Such precedents changed her scope of how humans operate when provoked. More so, the forces behind the invasion of her country provided her with a profound understanding of freedom and patriotism. Therefore, to examine the innate forces that drastically affected her social life, and transformed her imagination of a free world. In her book When Heaven and Earth Changed Places, she presents a candid analysis of the war, how families were shattered, women were raped, men tortured and were children massacured, when American in the race to engage the viet-coms destroyed the environment through the use of chemicals. From the point of view in regard to the two authors, political forces played the critical role in defining the future of the countries involved in this war. Though both witnessed the horrors of this war, it is the pain, and the reality of what the defenseless Vietnamese were going through that strongly changed the perception of Hayslip, while on the other hand Caputo seems to have been moved by the atrocious but criminal activities that were being fanned by politicians as well as top military personnel who believed the soldiers were fighting for a national cause 3.

However, as Caputo later realized, it was a war that was destroying both the life of the enemy as well as the soldiers in combat. Despite such social aspects as politics,econmics and religion that significantly influenced or rather impacted on the manner both authors reacted towards the effects of the war Hayslip seems to have adopted a more open and human approach hence she wrote Most of you who read this book have not lived my kind of life. By the grace of fate or luck or god, you do not know how tough it is to stay alive although now you encompass some idea ... Right now, however, there are millions of additional deprived people around the world--girls, boys, men, and women--who live their lives the way I did in order to survive 4. Looking at the diverse factors that led to Vietnam War, it is apparent that some people like Caputo joined the army as patriots, but when it came to the issue of the Vietnam War history has it that, most of those who were drafted were principally employed as part of a larger plan to contain communist China. And this foresaw the U.S. deploys a contingent of over 400,000 men and women who were engaged in air and naval battle against the North Vietnam.

The American armed effort aggravated rigid domestic and international resistance this led to tense civil-military relations. Exploring such factors, the question U.S. death squads in Vietnam similarly had the same psychological impact on Caputo,from the vivid details of war in his book, there was no justiable cause for the pain the people of Vietnam were subjected. Thus, the American endorsement of search and destroy strategy demoralized many soldiers including Caputo.  It is instrumental to point to the fact that, acts of sabotage, use of excessive air power, extensive use of chemical weapon as well as the violation of various humanitarian aspects of individual rights can also be said to other factors that impacted on both Hayslip and Caputo.

This can be linked to the fact that, both have strongly engaged on the devastating effects of this war as well as personal encounter of what the individual author went through. Therefore, looking at the historical records pertaining to this war both authors have no common connection apart from the individual encounter in Vietnam. All in all, it is prudence to aver that, they changed for the better and the Vietnam experience changed their individual opinion regarding human dignity.

The nature of the circumstances an individual encountered greatly shaped his imagination of the political world. Thus, it is instrumental to  state that, the prevailing economic, political and social conditions during the Vietnam war, had a profound impact  on both Caputo and Hayslip, this is evidenced by the manner they have handled the whole scenario of this aggression.  Though, there some critical differences between the two authors, however, it is evident that, the political and ideological forces behind the war helped them to rationalize on the concept that, the Americans were pushing for their foreign policies and more so the Chinese or rather communism expansion was one of key subjects of Americas involvement in this war.

Hence, this acted as an opener for the two dynamic authors, and this resulted in them accepting that, being involved in acts of war in opposition to another nation, there lives a degree of improbability in provisos of the enemys reactions.  And this is an indication that war inspires an erratic psychology and brings to mind strong emotions that flout systems analysis quantification. Therefore, the forces behind the Vietnam War in regard to Americas participation, as an imperative to contain communism, the confrontation was only made feasible through lies and fraud designed for the American public 2

There is a threat that one can gain knowledge of, regarding wrong lessons. All conflicts are restricted to some extent. There is nothing intrinsically wrong in restraining the use of might as long as the channels employed are associated with tactical aims and objectives. The procedures of shaping the means to utilize must begin with a clearly affirmed policy goal or purpose. Therefore, senior armed forces advisers and commanding officers ought to have formulated a military approach. However, in regard to Caputo, the military fought blindly, while the politicians fuelled the war, it paramount to note that, the consequences of Vietnam War greatly affected American political culture as well as their foreign policy. It is instrumental to aver that, the war which equally changed the Vietnams political landscape provided a fundamental lesson to Hayslip, in that, from what he went through, she developed an attitude to respect human life.

On the other hand, the Vietnam aggression, helped in molding a new personality, this is evident by the manner Caputo handled his journalistic work and went back to Vietnam, not as a soldier but as a newsman to witness the fall of Saigon. Therefore, may I argue that, the war gave the two authors basic lessons on the importance of making rational decisions. Hence, Hayslip retorted Like me, they did not solicit for the wars that consumed them. They request only for peace--the liberty to love and live a complete life--and nothing more. I ask only that you unlock your heart and intellect to them, as you have opened it to me by reading this book, and do not think that our story is over 4.

Chinas Population

Qn1 During the first 7 years following the establishment of the Peoples Republic in 1949, Chinas economy escalated considerably, thereby improving the lives of many people. Besides, there was peace, almost adequate food for everybody, as well as great extension of medical and health services. These government initiatives drastically decreased death rates emanating from famine and diseases. As such, improved social conditions as well as food security favored population growth from 1950s to 1990s. 

Qn2 I agree with Maos population thought, because population has never been a problem to any country and China is no exception. Just as Mao uttered, people are the greatest asset to a country, without which economic development suffers human resource deficiency. Worries about population growth are groundless, as this demonstrates the superiority of a particular society. I as well agree with Maos thought because, though population increase comes along with a number of substantial problems, Mao acknowledges this, but maintains that the benefits of population increase to a country like China outweigh the anticipated problems.

Qn3 The obvious characteristic is that Chinas population is extremely large, and that it augments rapidly. In 1982 for instance, Chinas population almost equaled the total population of Africa, Europe, and Oceania put together. Secondly, Chinas population is unevenly distributed. The South East part of China is densely populated than the North West part. Finally, approximately eighty percent of the Chinese population lives in rural areas, and farming population is therefore enormous.

A Book Review on Benjamin Isadore Schwartzs The World of Thought in Ancient China

History has always been a popular subject matter in academic exploration. Over the years, history has not yet failed to suffice the world with the most interesting discoveries about the past civilizations that existed way before the modern society which currently breathes on earth. History, through its connection to the various kinds of civilizations that walked the earth years past, connects to another dynamic and equally interesting subject matter, which is culture. These two interesting topics were tackled and touched by the great Asian  history and literature author, Benjamin Isadore Schwartz. In his book, entitled The World of Thought in Ancient China, Schwartz brings the reader into the colorful and vibrant worlds of different Chinese civilizations that existed in different time frames in history.

This book traces the developments and changes that occurred throughout the decisive and crucial stages of the Chinese cultures history. Schwartz delves into the fascinating world of Chinese history and culture and hopes to present every interesting and enthralling detail to his readers. In this book, Schwartz presents the collected texts from different ancient Chinese urns of knowledge and literature. Schwartz developed his inclination towards Asian history during a time when the seeking for knowledge on history was at its peak.  Together with other masters in Asian history, Schwartz realized the necessity to focus on the developments of Asias culture and tradition in order to realize how greatly it has evolved over the centuries. However, more specifically, Schwartz preferred to focus on one culture which has proven itself to be one of the worlds strongest and most preserved, the Chinese culture.

While Schwartz made his way into the brilliance and wondrousness of the Chinese culture, he was able to realize the complexity and dynamics of this society. And through intelligent explications and expositions about the said culture, Schwartz lets readers dive into the amazing culture of the Chinese civilizations as well through this work.

Schwartz starts off by explicating his main purpose in writing the book. He emphasized his objective to explore the themes and issues related to the history of ancient Chinese thought. From this, it can be observed that the author displays an intelligent leaning on the subject matter as he preferred to explore a complex and technical aspect of Chinese history instead of simplistic and typical concepts like art, literature or traditions. It was also notable for the author to relate the significance of studying the history of the history of Chinese thought to the studies on the same subject matter done in the context of other cultures such as that of the Korean, Japanese and other Western cultures. In this part of the book, Schwartz also articulately justified the significance of the subject matter where he decided to focus on. Schwartz reiterates that this subject matter is indeed significant to be explored as a lot of significant Chinese developments involve the history of Chinese thought. Schwartz specifically notes that,

The contention that the period which we are here considering is crucial to the understanding of the entire subsequent history of China in every area of life is hardly new. There has, in fact, been a sharp and even justified reaction against the excessive focus on this period by an older generation of sinologists. Few historians of China now believe that this is the only creative period of Chinese cultural history and that the centuries which lie between this period and the coming of the Western impact represent nothing but a silent, ahistorical, and  in terms of our historic biases  sterile stasis. (Schwartz, 1985, p.1)

At this point, Schwartz is able to make a good point by stating the significance of looking into the crucial time frame where most of the Chinese creative developments occurred. However, aside from this, he also emphasized that it is important to explore the history of Chinese thought as it can be observed that although most societies nowadays display modern trends of thought, there are still incontestable influences from the past societies present in their trends of thought.  Aside from this, Schwartz also highlights the significance of historic changes. This is another highlight in this work, as most historical account nowadays fall short in reiterating the importance of this concept. By historical change, Schwartz means, the alterations on rules, customs, norms and ways of living. Schwartz notes that from these changes lay the breakthroughs in history, that appear to be some of the most interesting subject matters when it comes to tackling history.

As Schwartz goes on in his discussions on the more complex ideals, he makes a significant mention about the evolution of dynasties and empires. Just like other historical accounts on Chinese history, Schwartz also mentions the three powerful and significant empires in China, namely, Hsia, Shang and Chou. He notes the relation among these dynasties is important to explore as it will reveal how each dynastys developments affect the others. And when it comes to the development of thought, Schwartz notes that here, again, there may have been no one pristine state originating at one center but the simultaneous evolution of several more or less developed state formations over a wide area (Schwartz, 1985).

Schwartz also touched several popular ancient Chinese texts like the Book of Poetry, and the Book of documents. Each document was analyzed in terms of significance to the evolution of dynasties as well as to the overall evolution and development of Chinese thought. At this point, Schwartzs ability when it comes to explicating ancient texts appears clearly. It is apparent that he holds some level of mastery when it comes to analyzing and interpreting ancient Chinese texts as he was able to clearly and comprehensively expound on the said texts. It can also be observed that over the years, ancient texts and literature have always been considered some of the most interesting features in history. Thus, the association of these materials to this work gives it one interesting feature that must have served as a retainer of readers interest in the course of reading this book.

Aside from the interesting ancient Chinese texts, one of the most interesting features in this book is the authors leaning towards Confucian teaching. In the second chapter of this book, Schwartz displays a notable and remarkable mastery of Confucian beliefs and teachings as he tried to connect the Chou Dynastys history with the rest of the history of Chinese thought. The author specifically notes,

Despite the obscurity which still envelopes the history of China during the early centuries of the Chou dynasty, this period was to have peculiar symbolic importance. Here we find the period to which Chinas unique sage Confucius looked from the turmoils of his own era, seeking his image of the good society. What he saw  and how that relates to what was actually there  remains a question of ongoing interest. (Schwartz, 1985, p.40)

At this point, Schwartzs inclination and interest to historical personas also appear evident. His ability to eloquently relay is knowledge on the Confucian belief and way of life manifests his level of mastery when it comes to the more intricate details of Asian history. Also, the authors critical and analytical ability also appears clear in this part as he was able to intelligently connect this complex set of Confucian beliefs and teaching to the dynamic and seemingly developments of the Chinese thought.

Aside from the major Confucian teachings, Schwartz also displayed mastery in his explications of the Analects. In the third chapter of this book, Schwartz also discussed the significance of the Analects to the overall development of Chinese thought. However, in this part of the book, it can be observed that Schwartzs way of discussion grew more complex and technical. This might have been caused by the interrelating ideals and concepts within the context of the Analects.

However, although it was apparent that Schwartzs discussion grew more complex and technical towards the end, he was still able to display a remarkable ability in relating other ideals to his main subject matter. In the succeeding chapters of this book, the author also related the history of Chinese thought to those of other cultures like the Indian culture. In this part, it was apparent that Schwartz was trying to depict the richness of the Chinese historical developments in the context of the richness of other cultures history. This where readers will realize how open and knowledgeable the author is when it comes to the varying cultures in Asia. In every claim, there was always a logical supporting fact which does not just strengthen Schwartzs arguments, but also makes him a notably author due to his perceived credibility when it comes to his utilization of information.

As he delved deeper into the roots of Chinese history, Schwartz was also able to discuss some ideals about the roles of women I ancient china. The roles of women in history can also be considered as one of the most interesting and controversial topics typically discussed. Schwartz was able to mention some details about the role and treatment to women during the earlier years in China, however, this part was not a major feature in the book. As what Schwartz discusses, women and men were actually treated equally especially during the eight of the Confucian tradition. He states,

Since all men and women, whether they be fathers, mothers, teachers, or rulers, tend to be non-loving and self-interested, only Heaven in its transcendental impartiality, ets the pattern for men. (Schwartz, 1985, p.145)

In this part of his discussion, he reveals that one of the most remarkable features at this point of Chinese history is the equality of treatment between men and women. As what the aforementioned excerpt entails, the heavens at that point actually looks down to both man and woman as equally worldly and sinful beings thus, equal treatments were applied to them. However, as what have been mentioned earlier, this part of discussion about the roles of women did not constitute much of the main arguments. This part appeared like a minute detail of the larger discussion on the history of Chinese thought and culture. However, when it comes to all the other features in this book, it can nonetheless be said that Schwartz was able to succeed in justifying the significance of each minute detail and concept he mentioned.

All in all, this book appears like a vehicle for an adventurous and enthralling ride into the dynamic and interesting history of China. Although at some points, Schwartzs phrasing and command of language may seem too complex and incomprehensible due to the technicality of the details he discussed, the significance of such details were always easy to identify as Schwartz was able to state supporting facts and figures. His usage of language also appears commendable as every thought easily goes into a readers comprehension. His organization is also noteworthy as the flow of his thoughts and ideas emerged into a harmonious and flawless weave of concepts and historical accounts, which might have been possible through his smooth transitions. Understandably, an individual who is not that inclined enough to historical accounts may not easily grasp and appreciate this kind of work. However, as for those who are curious and inquisitive about the rich history of China, this work of Schwartz is a fine and remarkable read.

Kakure Kirishitan (Hidden Christian in Japan, Tokugawa Shogunate Period)

The advent of Christianity in Japan played an important role in the shaping of its history and culture. The closing of borders for the European countries was a direct consequence of the advent of the Christian religion, and the European culture that it brought with it. This not only affected trade and foreign relations, it also affected technological developments in Japan in the Tokugawa period, where European technological advances and literature were not available. Also, in many other countries, the advent of Europeans resulted in colonialism, this was not the case with Japan, which can be attributed to the rejection of the Christian religion in part.   
  
 It is important to understand the Japanese society that existed before the advent of Christianity. Japan was a very closed society built on a very strict system of classes. Buddhism was the main religion of this region although the people were not extremely religious. The warrior classes collected taxes from farmers, however they were not extremely high. Japan was not a united entity before Christianity entered Japan. It was a country divided into many factions all fighting a fierce civil war with each other. It was a very chaotic situation where none of the rulers enjoyed an tangible authority over the whole of population. Hence, the institutions were weak and the government was extremely mismanaged. Under these conditions, the people of Japan were not happy. Neither with the morality and ethics of the era, nor with the established authorities of the country. This was basically a military society that needed much room for improvement.
   
Christianity came into Japan in the late 16th to early 17th century for the first time in an organized and large scale. Spain and Portugal were established powers of the time and were involved in colonizing new territories. The main motives of their colonizations were the control of trade and the overseeing of their respective countries economic interests. However, during these times, religion was as much a part of the government as a whole as any other secular institution. Therefore, a major part of going into any country was the spread of Christianity throughout that country. The westerners thought of Christianity as a major force in modernizing and civilizing a country, the non-Christians were considered as savages in this era. Hence whenever the Portuguese of Spaniards entered a country, the spread of Christianity was one of their major stated goals. Initially, both the Spanish and the Portuguese  had a dispute regarding the spread of Christianity in japan, because whoever got the exclusive right to spread Christianity in this region, also got the rights to trade exclusively with this country automatically.
   
When the Jesuit Priest Francis Xavier entered Japan the country was involved in a large scale civil war. None of the power brokers exercised real meaningful power over the region. Neither the emperor nor the Ashikaga shogun had complete control over the country at that time. The Jesuits then preached to the daimyo in southwestern Japan and succeeded in converting some of these daimyo. According to some historians, one reason for their conversion may have been the Portuguese trade in which the Jesuits acted as brokers. The Jesuits recognized this need of the daimyo and approached them with offers of trade and exotic gifts.
   
The main strategy of the propagation of Chritianity by the missionaries was to convert or befriend the influential feudal lords of a particular region. In hindsight, we do see the effectiveness of this strategy because those regions in which the feudal lords converted to Christianity were the ones which were most responsive to the Christian missions . Yamaguchi was one such story in this saga. The rulers of Yamagachi were curious about Francis Xavier and this new religion that he was preaching, however, they thought of Christianity as a part of the Buddhist religion and did not this of it having as any revolutionary ideas. Hence, their acceptance of Christianity was based on its harmlessness and non-threatening to the Yamagachi rulers. However, when Francis Xavier openly started preaching Christianity in this region he stated many ideas publicly that went against the accepted norms of the society. For example he denounced infanticide, idolatry and homosexuality   these were the practices that were widely accepted at that time. Due to his denunciation of these ideas, the rulers became suspicious of him.
   
By the end of the 16th century, Christianity was flourishing in Japan. There were baptized Christians in virtually every province of Japan and became a nationwide phenomenon. There were hundreds of churches spread throughout Japan and Christianity was equally popular among all classes of society, the rich, the poor, the peasants and artisans alike. Most of the daily rituals of the churches in Japan were done by the Japanese themselves, as opposed to Europeans. This gave Christianity a local color, also, the churches were mostly based on Japanese native architecture. This was the time when Nagasaki was called The Rome of Japan due to a large number of native Christians residing in the city. All types of people became Christians up till this time, and were actively involved in the workings of the church. We cannot say that only traders or daimyo were responsible for the spread of Christianity, because each member of the Japanese church was actively involved. One notable fact here is that it was widely accepted by the Christian missions that it was impossible to colonize or conquer Japan and limited their activities accordingly.
   
As stated earlier in the paper, this was largely a militarized society where the daimyo were frequently at war with each other. Initially, when the Christian daimyo were fighting the non-Christian daimyo, the Christians would provide with weapons and support to the Christian daimyo. Their support of Omura Sumitada and Arima Harunobu, who fought against the anti-Catholic Ryuzoji clan is one such example. This was one of the mistakes that the Kirishitan  made, that is involving themselves on military actions between warring feudal daimyo. As the military activities of Kirishitans increased, they were regarded more and more as western agents who were trying to conquer Japan in the name of Spain or Portugal. Another interesting aspect is the relative competition between the Jesuits and the Mendicant orders to have complete rights over Japan. They both employed different methods but their rivalry was one factor which pushed them towards gaining more ground over the other even if they had to use military force.
   
By 1559, a missionary, Gaspar Vilela, asked for permission from Ashikaga Yoshiteru to  preach  Christianity in his region, which was granted in the same manner in which the Buddhist temples were granted permission in those days, which means that no special treatment was accorded to them. At the same time, Emperor Ogimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, however, these bans did no prove to be much meaningful because at the time neither the Emperor nor the Shogun enjoyed widespread control of all territories. By the end of 1579 there were around 130,000 Christians in Japan.  With the advent of Christianity, a significant impact on the existing society and culture started to occur. Christianity brought with it a whole new moral and ethical code which was largely incompatible with the existing norms of society, also, with the increase of Christians, need was felt to build more churches   these factors contributed to the causes violent clashes with the Buddhist majority of Japan, who did not favor these new developments. Also, as adherents of Christianity grew, the newly converted Christians tended to be very fundamentalist about their new religion, their toleration of of non-believers grew less due to the incompatibilities in their respective moral code. These new converts then became involved in violence against the Buddhists, who retaliated with the same.
   
Up till 1580, Christianity was gaining smooth ground in Japan and there were relatively few obstacles. This was because Japan was in political chaos internally and there was no absolute authority that could question the missionaries universally or hinder their activities in an organized manner. Therefore, up till 1580 Christianity grew in Japan with and unprecedented growth rate. However, Christianity started to lose its appeal when things started to change in Japan. After Toyotomi Hideyoshi came into power, Japan was reunited and there was complete authority of the ruler in most of the Japanese mainland.
   
To understand the influence of internal political factors that played a role in the spread of Christianity in Japan we must understand the background of that period of Japans history. The Tokugawa Shogunate was a feudal regime in Japan that came into power in the early seventeenth century. It was ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa and this period is also known as the Edo period. This period was marked by a feudal society. The society of this period was based on a strict system of classes, where the warriors were placed on top, which were followed by the farmers, artisans and the traders. The shogunate was a military government that ruled according to strict discipline from the masses. The population was forced to follow rigid laws that could not be broken at all, and the punishments were the most strict.
   
When the Japanese were converted to Christianity, they were given new teachings about their religion, but it did not end at that. The missionaries that were coming to Japan encouraged the new converts to adopt western culture. They were given new  Christian  names at baptism and were being given a whole new culture. Inasmuch the change of religion was being tolerated to such a small extent already, this coerced change of culture came to be regarded very suspiciously among the Japanese.
   
The Tokugawa also had complete control over the trade. The monopolized this industry and yielded huge profits from it. Initially, trade started with the visits of Nanban ships from Portugal. When initially the Christians started coming into Japan, their advent was not resisted at all because of the lucrative trade that they brought with them. Also, they brought foreign advanced technology with them, such as the Musket. The Tokugawa saw this as a way to crush the Buddhist forces of the country. The turning point in their relationship with the Christianity came when a ship captain accused the Christian missionaries of being there to prepare Japan for western conquest. These claims made Hideyoshi suspicious of the missionaries. However, he could not afford to have bad trading relationships with Portugal and Spain because they could provide support to Dom Justo Takayama, who was a Christian Daimyo in western Japan. Therefore, he tried to curb Catholicism while maintaining a good trading relationship with the westerners.
   
Hideyoshis suspicions crossed the threshold when he learned about some of the practices of the Christians by 1587. He learned that Japanese commoners were focred to convert under the instrctions of the Christian lords. Also that they had converted Nagasaki into a military garrison and openly practiced slave trade and the slaughter of horses and oxen for food, which was against Buddhist practices. It is a fact that many daimyo converted to Christianity because it gave them a better access to saltpeter, which is a main ingredient in the manufacture of gunpowder. Hideyoshi Toyotomi promulgated the Bateren-tsuiho-rei (the Purge Directive Order to the Jesuits) on July 24, 1587 which consisted of 11 articles and put Nagasaki under his direct rule to control Portuguese trade and in 1597, 26 Kirishitan followers were executed there on his order.
   
Tokugawa Ieyasu took over Japan after the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. He did not have any different plans than what Hideyoshi had. On top of his list was still trade with the foreign countries, however, like the previous ruler he too was suspicious of the westerners and their designs regarding the spread of their religion. Religion was not the only problem with Tokugawa, a growing concern was the spread of western culture. The Japanese were increasingly becoming suspicious because the missionaries were acting in a manner that they were conquerers of the converts. Not only were they encouraged and forced top adopt western names, they were also encouraged to adopt western clothing. The top Hat was thought of as a Christian religious symbol rather than a western item of clothing, hence the Japanese orthodox people became increasingly hostile to this western Christianity and the Kirishitans responded with the same. The Kirishitans were not afraid to use force and violence to enforce their ideas and culture where it was required. Some of the practices of the Japanese that were native to the nation were dubbed as evil and sinful and the Kirishitan did not refrain from using violence to stop such practices. Inspite of all this, Ieyasu kept trade his priority. He took control of Portuguese trade in 1600 and negotiated trade with other regions, such as the Phillipines.
   
Internationally, the Dutch and the British were in the same race to secure as many countries as possible for trade and colonization. This meant that the Portuguese as well as Spain were in direct competition with them too. To secure trade with Japan from the Portuguese and the Spaniards for themselves, and discourage Catholicism the Dutch and the British told the Shogunate that Spain wanted to attack Japan, and historically the Spanish preach catholicism in a country just before attacking it, so that the colonized country is more receptive of its new rulers. The Dutch and the British held that if they were given a chance in Japan, they would only practice trade and would not preach any form of religion. The main reason for toleration of Christians in Japan up till now was the fact that they brought trade with them, which was extremely beneficial to the economy, especially the existing feudal class. However, the Christian morality was being taught to the masses of Japan, which said that all men are created equal. This annoyed the feudal class because it challenged the established status quo. Tokugawa Ieyasu saw these new preachings as a threat to his authority and crown, and decided that to save his authority he must overcome this new phenomenon that is trying to change the culture, religion and morality of the country.
   
Catholicism was banned in 1614 by Tokugawa because of all the factors stated previously in addition to the fact that Ieyasus Catholic vavasor was involved in an alleged fraud against him. Due to the lack of understanding of the Christian religion, Ieyasu regarded all Christian teachings as a plot to overthrow his regime. He was already suspicious of the fact that Japanese culture was slowly being westernized, the teachings of equality he considered to be the next step to make him weaker. Not only that, he considered all Christians to be working for Toyotomi force which was the political rival faction at the time. Also, Ieyasu was concerned that the Spanish might attack Japan like they had done with some other countries already like the Philippines. In addition to that the ban was also a step against the Toyotomi clan.  He saw the elimination of the Christians in general and the foreign missionaries in particular a way to destroy his political rivals. And hence, foreigners were banished and Japanese borders were closed for the next 250 years. By the middle of 1600s all Christian missionaries were forced to leave Japan and all converts were ordered to be executed. This was the end of Christianity in Japan till the Meiji restoration. Even though Christians resisted this persecution, they were virtually helpless against it. They had no other option than to follow their religion clandestinely. The Kakure Kirishitan came into being as a result of these events.
   
To make sure that a person was not a Christian, he had to obtain a certificate from a local Buddhist temple, this was called the Terauke seido. This proved that a person was orthodox and loyal to the Tokugawa regime. Another way to find out if a person was a Kirishitan or not was to place a picture of Jesu or Virgin Mary on the floor and telling him to trample upon this picture. If the person refused or hesitated to do so, he was considered a Christian and was sent to Nagasaki, where he was persecuted. As much as 3000 Christians were killed in this pogrom. At the time, the total population of Christians in Japan was around 300000.
   
For the next many years to come till the Meiji restoration, the Kakure Kirishitan lived in secrecy and practiced their religion under the constant fear of persecution. Japan closed its borders to the Europeans, especially Christians, completely now. The punishment for leaving the country was death, so was illegally entering the country. Hence japan completely sealed its borders, mainly due to the paranoia of the Tokugawa regime. This was done by the imposition of the Sokoku. Sokoku was imposed because of the Shimbara rebellion of 1637-38 in which almost 40,000 Christians rose against their persecution. After this, the Shogunate held the missionaries responsible for the whole rebellion.
   
In conclusion, the spread of Christianity was affected by the internal political factors of Japan to a large extent. We can state that the advent of Christian missionaries in Japan was somewhat motivated by trade in addition to spreading Christianity, but also, there were many mistakes made by the missionaries. Mistakes such as involving themselves in politics of the country and dealing in arms and changing the culture of the country. The strong actions that were taken by the missionaries, sometimes legal sometimes illegal to the state, had an equally strong reaction when the time came. As soon as Japan got over its internal conflicts, Christianity went downhill because of the stronger authority of the new ruler and more control he enjoyed over his land. Because of these events, Japan closed its borders completely for particularly for the Europeans for the next 250 years, which has had a lasting impact on not only Japan, but the whole world. In retrospect, there are many things that would have been different today if this had not happened, however that is all just conjecture. Today there are around 1 Christians in Japan, as compared to other East Asian countries like China (5), Vietnam (7), South Korea (29.2). Furthermore, Japan could not become a part of the world till many years later and was devoid of the technological advancements of the era. During these years, the only way to stay abreast of the technological and scientific advancements was to study the Dutch literature which became outdated as soon as the borders opened after 250 years. After the borders were finally opened, many Japanese went abroad to study and Japan opened its doors to development.