The role and nature of Daoism

What is the role and nature of Daoism, and to what extent is it a natural way What does non-action mean to a Daoist

Daoism is an indigenous Chinese tradition that is both a religious organization and a philosophical system. It is traditionally traced to the mythical Laozi although philosophical Daoism is credited to Zhuang of the 4th century BC (De barry, 1960). Daoism encompasses a wide range of analogous doctrines and it is allied with various naturalistic religions. The Lao-Zuang philosophy is commonly used to discern the philosophical from the more religious Huang-Lao strain of Daoist thinking. By its nature Daoism has no constant dao (way), since its meta-ethical reflections are skeptical, relativist, naturalistic and mystical (De barry, 1960).

Nonetheless, Daoism subdues to a common spirit and it possesses conscious philosophical manifestations provoked by distinct ambivalence in advocacy which is apparent in their non-argumentative style and their usage of poetry and parables. In ancient China, the political manifestation of Daoist doctrines was evidently resentment to authorities, government, and coercion to the extent of normal socialization in values (De barry, 1960). Daoist impulsiveness is contrasted with explicit teachings in the social dao. Hence this paper extensively explores the origin of Daoism, the various themes it has entrenched in its doctrines to promote environmental conservation and what non-action means to Daoists.

Generally, Daoism refers to the teachings of Laozi and Zhuangzi, whom although they did not directly articulate ecology and environmental ethics in their teachings they influenced the evolution of Daoism. The doctrines of Daoism provide powerful accounts for approaching ecological and environmental issues based on its understanding of the natural world and human interactions with the environment (De barry, 1960). The environmental consciousness of Daoism is the inspiration of the teachings of the dao which emphasize that the environment must be protected whichever the cost. The Daoist texts directly authorize the mode of conduct and indirectly in the flamboyant manner of laying out metaphysical considerations and address the question of the underlying relationship between humanity and the environment and how man should treat the environment.

As essentially alluded to the aforementioned, there is the direct command amongst the Daoist scriptures which directs how one should treat the environment. This command is commonly called the one hundred and eighty precepts, which was written in the first century of the Common Era thus making Daoist precepts among the earliest genuine efforts of human civilizations to ensure environmental protection (De barry, 1960). These precepts contain a list of rules, some specifically dedicated to environmental stewardship. For instance, number forty seven reads, you should not wantonly fell trees, and number fifty three reads you should not dry up wet marshes (De barry, 1960). The general belief of modern society Daoism is that these rules were designed because Daoism considered the environment as sacred, a tendency based on the metaphysical theories of Daoism.

Generally, Daoism incorporates two perspectives towards ecology through its metaphysical doctrines, i.e., the universe perspective and the particular perspective (De barry, 1960). These metaphysical distinctions were made for the purpose of discerning clear-cut positions towards the environment. The universal distinction, according to Daoism, begins from seeing spiritual and material things as components of chi (De barry, 1960). The chi manifests do not clear cut differences between matter and the spirit. Since the spiritual cannot be associated to a certain realm, therefore everything contains the spiritual consequently, Daoism just like non-monotheistic traditions has always regarded the environment as holy (De barry, 1960). This perspective assumes that everything which exits is one continuous whole. The universe is considered to be the whole and it is always in the process of unfolding.

Daoist priests have persistently, stressed the precepts of Daoism in regard to promoting respect for nature and personal responsibility for the impact of ones actions. Ordination, rites of Daoism commands priests to force their congregations not to indiscriminately fell trees, contaminate water, or to trap birds and animals. Daoism promotes universal peace, since they believe social strives and warfare involves huge losses of natural resources which can result in more conflicts. The Daoist priesthood encourages its congregation to reforest their natural habitats, so as to repair denuded landscapes, to preserve wild habitats and to engage in social welfare and disaster relief programs. Through direct involvement with local communities, Daoism offers a practical bottom-up approach to counter the poorly enforced top-down approach in environmental conservation (De barry, 1960).

For Daoist, caring for nature is a religious duty because nature is sacred. Daoism pre-empts the modern holistic scientists who empirically know that, atoms are born in the hearts of stars and our biology is intricately linked to an interdependent ecosystem, because they observe that humanity is inseparable from nature and heaven (De barry, 1960). Daoists central belief is that human knowledge makes people deviate from the natural order of the Dao for reasons of greed hence reinforcing the dire need for Daoist teachings. Daoist knowledge always regards nature as something that can be understood by experience, and as something that can be acted only with due humility. Consequently, it has deferential view towards nature. The Daoists aesthetical approach to nature deeply rests on the perspective of an individual, and the perception of nature is fundamentally an aspect of ones spiritual understanding. Daoism has found a new role, and it has articulated its support for socialist ideologies by emphasizing its role in promotion of moral behavior, altruism, and personal responsibility (De barry, 1960). Their emphasis on balance as the spiritual virtue implies restraint from greed and wastefulness whilst promoting basic material gratification and reducing poverty.

Consequently, believe that everything exists as a continuous whole with the chi underlying all of it. Daoists religiously derive the various ecological themes espoused in Daoism.  The most important theme derived from this perspective is the assumption that everything is interconnected and interdependent with everything else (De barry, 1960). Accordingly, Daoist, believe that the identity of something is depended on what it relates to. The view espoused by Daoist entails that humanity is intimately related to the natural environment since humanitys very identity is grounded in its environment.

Daoism accentuate the philosophical maxim Do unto others as you would have them do unto you (De barry, 1960).This invokes the sense of oneness with nature and it has united Daoist scholars to emphasize on an ecological theme they call cosmic body which stresses that, humanity and the rest of the world are one and the same (De barry, 1960). This doesnt allow one to assume that the natural world is an external identity but rather a continuous entity for there is no dichotomy between the internal and the external. The theme encourages man to explore nature from within. The Daoist action towards the environment is therefore construed as an action toward the self as the individuals material being is also the field that must be tended and nurtured from the overarching perspective of its implication in the universal ecosystem. In addition the Daoistic doctrines dictate that man and the natural environment are interlinked and thus it identifies the natural environment as the basis for transcendence.

Instead of viewing the world a whole entity with universal ideologies, Daoists perceives the world as spontaneous sum of things which derive shelter from it. These things are then appreciated according to the relationship they exhibit within their context and the harmony they have with their surrounding. The ecological implication of this Daoistic position is that it regards everything on an equal basis. This uncensored emphasis is present because what is considered to exist is an enormous number of things which hold no precedent over any other (De barry, 1960).

The Daoists generally believe that heaven is a good land and in the Daoist text of Taiping- jing, it is thought that the synchronization between heaven, earth and humanity brings great peace (taiping), which will ultimately lead to great harmony (taihe), this area would entail cosmic harmony and social peace (De barry, 1960). Just like the stewardship ethic, the Daoists are mandated to care for the natural environment. Some eloquent examples of this are the preservation of heaven and earth, to provide and nourish life, and to be custodians and keepers of the chi which gives breath. Chapter seven of the Zhuangzi teachings, elucidate that man should maintain conditions that allow every creature to flourish (De barry, 1960). The Daoist concept of non-action is a complex theory. Inaction or wu-wei doesnt mean that one literally does nothing. In contrast it means one avoids unnatural action whereby one performs all actions with an unforced or natural attitude (De barry, 1960).

Their presentations for non-action in the Daoede jing provide a manifest presentation of how this mysterious conception occurs in various situations in the world. Generally, the presentation of this conception on non-action fits amicably with the Daoistic perception that there isnt a solitary human way but rather a complex hierarchy of ways which can be employed in every circumstance one is confronted with. The Dao is considered to be the mother of heaven and earth. Since heaven and earth are long-lasting, although they do nothing themselves. Alternatively, heaven and earth get along through non-action (De barry, 1960).

One way Daoist conceptualize non-action is through water. Basically water benefits variety of creatures and resides practically everywhere. It resides in places that people consider repugnant, and so comes close to the way (De barry, 1960). In a way water doesnt hold a fixed way, anything opposed to the fixed way people would frown upon, yet water goes anywhere. Daoists believe that water though easily pushed around, is the dominant among the stiff and strong nothing is more supple or weak than water, yet nothing can overcome it for invading both the stiff and the strong. Hence water demonstrates that non-action can do extraordinary things despite its deceptively weak appearance. Another way that Daoists portray that non-action is by showing that an active government actually gets less done by being too active. They are categorical when the show that people are living in poverty yet the government collects many taxes. The Daoists believe that peace and order prevails when people are satisfied, the desires are suppressed, and knowledge is kept to the minimum.

In conclusion, non-action is a remarkable idea, although it seems to exhibit potential problems. Returning to the origin through destruction of established ways so that one can live spontaneously has positive effects, although it can also leave one undecided. Sometimes societal norms of action are wanted to allow things to run easily or to relieve societal tensions. Generally, the rigid ways people hold to are not always derived from cultural norms of their communities. People do have their own ways and they tend to work on these, but they also depict ways that do not augment with the conscious level and that cannot be altered by any means that the Daoists recommend to become spontaneous. To come to no-action, one has to empty all the norms learned and become like an empty vessel, which is useful because it has an empty space. 

TANTRIC BUDDHISM

1. Born to an aristocratic family, Kukai was commissioned by the Japanese court to go on an extended period of study in China. In China, he learned the ancient ways of Buddhism and brought what he had learned there back to his home country. After his scholastic pursuit which lasted 30 months, Kukai returned to Japan.  In Mount Koya, he founded a new Buddhist school of thought whom he called Shingon which meant true word. The establishment of such Buddhist sect was made possible after permission was given by the Emperor of Japan to Kukai. From then on, Kukai was referred to as Kobo Daishi, translated as Great Teacher Who Spread The Dharma. He was widely known for his text on esoteric Buddhism Sokushin Jobutsu-gi.

 2. During his lifetime, one of the most notable works Kukai had done was Sokushin Jobutsu-gi . It was a text which concentrated on transforming ones body into that of the bodies of the buddhas, which basically referred to the way of entering the realm of enlightenment. Sokushin Jobutsu-gi provided a practical approach as to how to achieve enlightenment without losing the physical self. Kukais text stated that practitioners would be able to instantaneously convert their body-mind and enter the realm of enlightenment by empowering themselves and mastering the systems of both mediation and ritual. Such could only be done by steadfast repetition and unwavering perseverance.

3. Kukai also touched on the subject of the dharmakaya. The term literally meant body of qualities. It was not the physical body which was being referred here. Instead, it represented a corpus shared by all the buddhas such corpus was the sum total of all the transcendental qualities that the buddhas possessed. The dharmayakaya preached the esoteric teachings of Buddhism and, in Kukais reinterpretation, the dharmakaya was identified as Mahavairoc(h)ana. Mahavairoc(h)ana was responsible to express enlightenment in an unmediated but direct way.

4. Entering the realm of enlightenment was entering a state of eternal peace. It was a state where there were neither worries to waste precious time on nor any sadness to wallow in. It was a state where both the body and the spirit were unified into one being.  This unification would usually take place upon the development of a mantra. In particular, Kukais text provided the unification of the six elements in one all-encompassing mantra. The five basic elements in the traditional exoteric Buddhism which included a, vi, ra, hum, and kham and which were interpreted as earth, water, fire, wind, and space respectively gave Kukais text a much more binding force especially since a sixth element was added. The syllables of Kuakis mantra symbolically related to each of the five elements and the special sixth. To wit, the first  line of Kukais text which stated originally non-rising referred to the element a, which was earth the second line of the mantra was leaping beyond the path of languages which was the element vi representing water the third mantra purity and freedom from suffering represented ra, the element of fire the fourth which embodied the element of wind hum referred to the mantra line not to be captured by karmic causation and, lastly, the line just like empty space signified kham, the element of space. The sixth element, which was a unique addition by Kukai for the full unification of both the body and spirit in entering the realm of enlightenment, was the element of consciousness as symbolized by the mantra line I have awakened.         

5. To transform ones body into that of Mahavairoc(h)ana Buddha, great concentration and an unconfined belief in enlightenment were required. Only when the mind had totally taken over the rebellious physical self would the path to the realm of enlightenment be laid upon. Such full control would only be made possible when the physical self, through its heart, its forehead, its mouth, and its crown, were to encounter and overcome empowerment. Again, empowerment could only be done by great concentration and unconfined belief. The empowerment of the heart brought forth wisdom in the same way that an empowered forehead would bring equality. It was the power of both observation and action which resulted from an empowered mouth and crown respectively. The empowerment of these four main body parts would bring nothing but the attainment of the body of Mahavairoc(h)ana Buddha. It was basically the body which represented the core essentialities of nature and an overflowing stream of wisdom.           

6. A mandala referred to the main essence of the unconscious self it mainly represented the unconscious self itself. Several mandalas could be possibly built by means of one intricate method. It was a method that required, again, great concentration and an unshaken belief. The divinities involved had to be only rightly distributed and positioned, their respective seed mantras and attributes complete.  The method required much visualization hence, it was called the visualization exercise. The practitioner of the mantra, that meant consciousness and, thus, was essentially the sixth element, had to place altars in circular forms around his body. In the area between the navel and the feet, the great vajra disk, which represented earth and formed by the letter a, had to be generated. The water disc had to put in the area somewhere between the navel and the chest. Once located, the fire disc would be placed over water and the wind disc would be put above fire. Emptiness, as indicated by the circular altars, had to be unified with the Practitioner of mantra, the sixth element. Only then would the dharmakayas body would be able to manifest itself in the world and, thus making it possible for the body to transform itself and eventually would be able to enter the realm of enlightenment.

 7. The abhiseka was an initiation ritual for the vajra-holder who would usually be a practitioner of the esoteric teachings of Buddhism. The ritual was made through meditative yoga. It would usually bring transformation of the four major delusions desire, attachment, love, and gratification. Such four major delusions were to be transformed into four female bodhisattvas who would personify aspiration instead of desire, commitment in place of attachment, compassion to replace love, and bliss for gratification. Before starting this spiritual ascent through the abhiseka ritual, the practitioner had to empty himself first. Only upon such emptying could his spiritual ascent commence and would enlightenment be able to ensue.

8. Tantric Buddhism would mainly discuss about the significance of sexual yoga. It traced its origin from the seventh century, which marked the entry of Buddhism into Tibet where a Tibetan King officiated the marital union of two of the members of the Nepalese and Chinese royalties, both of whom were fervent Buddhists. From that time on, Buddhism enjoyed royal patronage. 

9.  Sexual yoga, as emphasized by the text, was the type of sexual union represented by yab-yum, which literally meant father-mother. It was the unquestionable union of the opposites as seen from the viewpoint of enlightenment. Such enlightened sexual union conjoined the Awareness All-Good Male and the Mother All-Good Female in a non-dual manner. Their union appeared pure and devoid of any nihility. It is the immense representation of fruit-bearing for oneself and self-appearance for another. With the blissful union of the All-Good Father and the All-Good Mother, life was spontaneously produced and lived for. Apart from endless variety, life was pursued and savoured in its natural essence making the physical manifestation of it among its practitioners all worth it.

The Taiping Rebellion

The Taiping Rebellion was probably the most significant event that occurred in China prior to the creation of the Peoples Republic in 1949.  This rebellion ran from 1851 to 1864 as an attempt to overthrow the ruling Qing (Manchu) Dynasty and create a whole new community that was egalitarian and puritanical nature grounded on quasi-Christian beliefs.  This conflict was probably the bloodiest one in the history of the world, resulting in the deaths of over 20 million people.  The uprising was so significant in Chinas history that even the communists under Mao Zedong acknowledged it and claimed it as part of the revolutionary heritage of the peasantry.  At the same time as well, one could detect a pattern on how the Chinese government have been dealing with religious movements to the present from the Taipings of the 19th century to the Falun Gong in the present regardless of the change in regimes.

How did Hong Xiuqian arrive at his new vision of a Heavenly Kingdom
The leader of the movement was Hong Xiuquan.  He was born in a village in Guangdong province to a family of farmers in 1814.  At the age of seven, he began formal education at a place called the Book Chamber House until he was fifteen when his parents could no longer subsidize his schooling owing to their economic situation.  Owing to his ability to recite the Four Classics proficiently, he became a tutor to the children of his village in order to be able to continue his education albeit privately.  He took the preliminary examinations in his village and got first place.  Buoyed by his success, he took the first-degree civil service examinations in the province where he met his first failure.   He would eventually fail this very difficult exam three more times for the passing rate of this highly competitive examinations was 1 percent.
   
Hongs  enlightenment  began in 1836 while visiting Guangzhou (Canton) to take the civil service examinations when he encountered (Protestant) Christian missionaries teaching a religion considered alien to the Chinese yet out of a mixture of interest and intrigue, received summaries of and translations of the bible in Chinese.  These translations were done by the Chinese missionary Liang Fa.  After his last failure at the civil service examinations, Hong suffered a nervous breakdown and during his convalescence it was said he experienced mystical visions.  Of these many visions, one particular vision had given him the impetus to start something new.  This was the dream where Hong was carried to heaven and met a black-robed golden-bearded man who gave him a sword and magic seal, along with a mandate to purge China of the demons plaguing it. As his movement was gaining ground, he had an able lieutenant in Yang Xiuqing who served as the  voice of God.   He had proven to be a valuable partner to Hong as both men were more educated and served as the intellectual and spiritual bedrock.
   
Later on in his life, he understood this vision as an encounter with the Christian God whom the Chinese called Shangdi and Jesus Christ, who was revealed to be his older brother, making him the younger brother of the Messiah and was given a mission of saving China from utter chaos and destruction brought about by the devils plaguing it from the corrupt imperial officials to the greedy foreigners exploiting the Chinese people through their high-handedness and unfair practices.  This was the result of his careful and thorough examination of the Christian tracts he had received and destroying all the Confucian and Buddhist materials in his house as he began to sell his vision and new ideas to the people in his village.  He further increased his knowledge of Christianity under an American Baptist missionary named Issachar Roberts and was subsequently baptized into Christianity. 

The result of which was Hong preached a brand of Christianity that had Protestant influences, owing to Roberts unorthodox style of evangelization and teaching as well as Liangs indigenized version.  Under his version of Christianity, where he proclaimed himself as the younger brother of Christ, he promised social reforms, consistent with Christian teachings, equality, separation of the sexes and the abolition of the  evil  practices of Confucianism such as the practice of foot-binding among women.  They also attempted to create a distinct culture where men continue to sport long hair but different from the pig-tailed queue of the Qings.  Because of this, and with the help of Yang, he was able to gradually gain a huge following.  When the Qings persecuted them, it was only then that they began to raise and army not only to defend themselves but also to challenge the Qings and attempt to overthrow it.

Why did the peasants of Guangxi rally around his cause What roles did religious belief, ethnic tensions, economic distress and social tensions play in fueling the rebellion

There were underlying circumstances that helped give rise to the Taiping Rebellion.  One was the existing political and social system of China under the Qing Dynasty. Despite being a foreign regime, the Qings inherited the same traits as the Mings whom they deposed and were captivated by the trappings of power that surrounded them in the Forbidden City.  They were no different from the Mings though the rest of the population resented them because they were foreign.  Like previous dynasties before them, they were out of touch with the rest of the empire as eunuchs did the actual administration while keeping the emperor completely ensconced yet isolated and they were very oppressive to the people.  This was further exacerbated by the governors of the provinces who acted like petty emperors in their own fiefdoms which practiced a semblance of feudalism that kept the lower classes poor and did little to alleviate their plight in a (Confucian) society that emphasized everyones position in society and that they must know their place in order to maintain harmony.  To speak out or be out of place was considered a breach in the norms and did not sit well with society.
   
The poverty and suffering of the people was further exacerbated by natural calamities that came in the form of droughts and the perennial flooding of Chinas major rivers, the Yangtze and Huang Ho (Yellow) which led to famines, contributing to more deaths.  Owing to their superstitious nature, a lot of people regarded these calamities as a sign that the Qings did not have the  Mandate of Heaven,  the hallmark of the political legitimacy in any dynasty.  The loss of this mandate would invite movements to emerge and challenge the incumbent dynasty and attempt to overthrow it and replace it with a new one based on the character of the new set of rulers.
   
Another factor was the arrival of the foreigners who came to secure concessions in China.  They came in two forms traders seeking markets for their products and a place to start a business to further gain more profit and missionaries and teachers, both Catholic and Protestant out to win more souls for their faith and congregation as well as  bring civilization  to a people who believed they were more civilized than the westerners (Spence, 4-8).  The Chinese were wary of the former because of their intentions and this became apparent following the Opium Wars where the defeated Chinese imperial leaders were compelled to sign  unequal treaties  that led to the cession of some of their territories to these  foreign devils  who not only exploited their natural resources, but also enslaved their people and lived with impunity owing to the extraterritorial rights they enjoyed which gave them immunity from the local laws and courts even if they were found guilty of a crime.  At the same time, the defeat of the Qings in the Opium Wars to the superior technological might of the western powers destroyed their prestige within their subjects as their invincibility was revealed to be false.  At the same time, this further validated the hunches of the superstitious that the Qings had indeed lost the  Mandate of Heaven.
   
On the distaff side, it was the foreign missionaries and teachers that were considered the friendliest  barbarians  as opposed to the merchants and soldiers who exploited the people.  The poorest in society found escape through Christian teachings and Christianity gradually gained a following.  Their promises of heavenly rewards and other Christian virtues somewhat had an appeal to those disillusioned with Confucian teachings they found too rigid as well as the corrupt and insensitive political leaders who left them to their devices.  The missionaries managed to win a struggle to translate the Scriptures into Chinese as the Qings refused owing to their xenophobic nature.  As the Bible was translated into Chinese, more and more adherents came in and these local adherents would be the new evangelists spreading the word in their native language and were proven to be more effective.  One such evangelist was Liang Fa, whose tracts were read by Hong (Reilly 78-79).
   
Like the other Christian missionaries, the poor of Guangxi were drawn to Hong charismatic preaching for the very same reasons stated above.  The difference was Hong believed he was given a mission and he needed to organize an army to rid China of the demons that plague it and he found willing recruits among the poor and his teachings, which was his own interpretation of the Scriptures was more appealing for it had  nationalistic  flavor as he succeeded in  localizing  or indigenzing Christianity though it deviated from the original teachings since he proclaimed himself as the younger brother of Christ.  These impoverished masses had borne the oppression of the Qings far too long that there had been several attempts to overthrow it but they were unsuccessful for lack of unity and the quality of their forces when arrayed against the imperial army not to mention the lack of a strong leader that could unify them under a common cause.  Hongs arrival into the scene somewhat gave the anti-Qing movement a proverbial shot in the arm.

Why was the Qing response initially so inadequate, and how did it become more effective
The Taping forces Hong created was made up mainly of the Hakka people.  Hongs authoritarian and charismatic leadership made it possible for him to raise a very competent army despite their peasant background.  They manufactured their own weapons covertly as there was an existing law that forbade subjects to own weapons.  They were able to produce a plethora of weapons, including cannons that were dug up from ancient sites or newly manufactured and had proven to be effective though crude.
   
Amazingly, the military organization of the Taipings revolved around an ancient idealized model which was centered on a series of units made up of over ten thousand men with a detailed command structure which was subdivided into two branches   strategic and administrative or training which was flexible and rigorous.  The military commanders widely distributed manuals such as military regulations, construction of camps and fortifications and combat formations.  Discipline was rigidly enforced and punishments were severe when infractions were committed.  When combined with Hongs teachings which motivated them, they were virtually invincible which enabled them to capture Nanjing and made it their capital for eleven years (Hooker  Reilly, 118-119).
   
As for the Manchus initial setbacks, this was attributed to the centralized military organization.  The imperial government forbade the creation of independent military organizations for fear they may undermine their authority.  Furthermore, the apparent obstinacy of the imperial leaders in refusing to reform their military forces following their defeat in the Opium Wars made it even worse as the Taipings soundly defeated them.
   
Following their setback, the Qings reversed their policies and allowed provincial leaders to raise new armies which were better equipped with modern firearms and this time organized and made up of foreign mercenaries and led by Frederick Townsend Ward and later, Charles Gordon following Wards death.  This well-equipped and well-trained force were up to the task of taking on the Taipings and they were so successful that they were called the  Ever Victorious Army  for they never suffered defeat at the hands of the Taipings (Hooker).

How are we to understand the Western reactions to the rebellion   
Westerners had mixed reactions to the rebellion.  One one hand, it was welcomed in the sense that some sectors found the Qings  stubborn  and even supported the Taipings with the hope that they could help reform China and make it more receptive to them owing to Hongs adherence to Christianity and his  crusade  to rid China of its old ways.  This mainly came from the Christian missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, who were initially persecuted by the imperial government in their attempt to spread Christianity in China.  Following the creation of the Taiping kingdom in Nanjing, the Taipings or  God-worshippers  made a very good impression on foreign missionaries who would visit and found a seemingly orderly society where the residents were made to (forcibly) to adhere to Christianity and renounce their old beliefs which impressed the foreign missionaries (Reilly, 120).
   
Upon the establishment of the Taiping kingdom in Nanjing however, western attitudes to the Taipings changed when news of the atrocities they were committing in neighboring areas raised fears and anxieties of their attitudes, especially when they found about Hongs perverted or distorted view of Christianity which they found blasphemous especially when hearing that he proclaimed himself as the son of God and younger brother of Christ.  For some businessmen, they were also a threat to the Opium trade as the Taipings also banned the trade in their territory, threatening their business interests.  What further raised western anxieties was that the Taipings were moving into the cities where they had enclaves and the media helped heighten the fears that the atrocities would be brought upon them as well.  These accounts made them gradually become less supportive of the Taipings to the point of being openly hostile as evidenced when British and French troops opened fire at Taiping forces approaching Shanghai.

What were the weakness of the new Taiping regime in Nanjing    
Despite their earlier success leading to the capture of Nanjing, the Taipings eventually collapsed owing to the weaknesses that showed later on.  Despite Hongs charismatic leadership, the defects of the Taiping  dynasty  were beginning to unravel and thereby undermine the prestige and the  invincibility  as well as the moral legitimacy of the Taipings.  On top of which was Hong himself.  In Nanjing, their capital, the Taipings behaved like the Qings they wanted to replace in the sense that they also followed the same hierarchical structure of an imperial court.  Owing to his self-styled divine authority, Hong did not actively participate in the administration of his kingdom and was rarely seen in public, leaving administrative matters to his lieutenants.  Despite teaching Christianity albeit based on his interpretation of the Scriptures, Hong maintained concubines numbering thousands which ran counter to Christian teachings of monogamy.  His lieutenants also practiced the same thing.  It was because of this that the foreign missionaries who at first used to admire the Taipings became disillusioned because of Hongs perversion of the faith to the point of even calling it a heresy (Hooker).
   
Based on the account of his former religious mentor, Issachar Roberts, Hong was mentally unstable after spending nearly two years with him in Nanjing.  He ruled like an emperor and named his relatives and lieutenants as  kings  of the north, south, east and west.  Unfortunately, a power struggle ensued between them with Hong supporting the East king on one occasion only to turn against him subsequently for fear of being betrayed and conspiring to overthrow him.  He even made two of his illiterate brothers kings to contain the others out of suspicion to make sure they would not challenge his authority (Spence, 243).     When the Taipings were besieged, thereby starving the people, he forbade his  subjects  to take refuge outside Nanjing and ordered them to eat what claimed was  manna  from heaven but was in fact poisonous plants growing within the city under the pain of death.
   
The Taiping rulers also failed to live up to their promises of creating a utopian society of equality and freedom owing to their haphazard way of administering their kingdom.  There was no civil administration that would directly meet the needs of their followers.  They failed to implement the promised reforms such as land reform that could have ensured the continued loyalty of the people as well as keep them happy as their needs were met.  The sight of their leaders emulating Qing practices made them even more disillusioned.  The Taipings concentrated primarily in maintaining their army and focused too much in administering the cities but failed to extend this in the rural areas that were covered in their territory (Hooker).
   
Militarily, because of Hongs emerging incompetence on account of his mental instability and the chaos it had caused, the Taipings failed to coordinate with the other uprisings occurring elsewhere in the southwest and northwest of China that was also happening at the same time where they could have had the chance to consolidate to form a much stronger front against the Qings who were also preoccupied with the Second Opium War against the British and the French and were eventually defeated by the latter and subjected to yet another humiliating treaty (Hooker).
   
In conclusion, the Taiping Rebellion underscores why incumbent regimes, from the Qings to the Peoples Republic are very wary of religious movements, whether it is Christianity, (Tibetan) Buddhism or a  spiritual  sect like the Falun Gong.  They are  foreign  in nature and despite their spiritual leanings, pose a threat to the security and stability of the Chinese state. 
   
Looking at it from another perspective, the Taiping Rebelion had validated itself as one of the significant events in Chinas history in the sense that the communists acknowledged it as the early struggle of the masses against a corrupt and oppressive regime even though it subscribed to a different ideology.  In addition, it succeeded where other uprisings had failed and their success, exposed the weaknesses of the dying dynasty and paved the way for future uprisings to succeed.

History of China

Shen Fus Six Records of a Floating Life presents the state of the Chinese society during the eighteenth century. Besides family set up and marriage relationships, it also examines life within the wider setting of society. But most importantly- and perhaps what makes the text unique, it departs from the dominant trends of scholarly writings of the 18th century. Traditionally, Chinese classical writings focused on the factual side of reality. Attention was given to those issues of relevance to the larger society instead of personal interests and needs. Accordingly, little was considered in regard to individual passions, pleasures and fantasies. It is on this score that Shen Fus Six Records of a Floating Life deviates from what was the norm.

In four episodes that span through his personal life, he explores his ups and downs in relation to his marriage to Chen Yun, his failed academic pursuit, the unachieved dream of making it to the top of the learned elite, his lowly job as a magistrates assistant, financial lows in his ambition to live a magistrates life on a clerks salary, social pressures to exude the appropriate image of a scholar, family conflicts and eventually, the banishment that took him floating afar  in chase of his elusive dream. So then, Six Records of a Floating Life is, properly speaking, an autobiography of Fus life in a society that gave little recognition to individual needs, more especially within the intellectual and literary circles. By making close reference to Fus personal experiences and the dominant elements in society that shaped social and personal life in Ming China, the paper aims to show that Six Records of a Floating Life is an account of rebellion against the intellectual, social and political forces that governed society in 18th century China.

Accordingly, responding to the question in question draws attention to the socio-political forces that influenced society in eighteenth century China. Similarly, it is necessary to make reference to the dominant social trends during the later Ming and early Qing dynasties in China, and examine how political-intelligentsia ideologies of the time reflected themselves on peoples daily lives. And finally, it calls us to examine how the life of Shen Fu and his marriagefamily relationships either conformed to or deviated from these elements.

During the 18th century and Ming Dynasty in China, it was the norm for parents to make marriage arrangements for their children. Brides were identified at any early age, at which point they were earmarked by giving engagement rings. The Shen Fu- Chen Yun affair, however, significantly departs from this societal tradition. Usually, marriages were for convenience purposes, and therefore parents chose wives for their sons from approved families. But during a relatives wedding, Fu made it clear to his mother that he will not marry any other girl other than Chen, whom he had apparently fallen in love with. On the surface, this might seem a naughty boys rebellion against parental authority- which it actually it is, given that his statement implies future defiance if things are not done according to his wish.

But then, it also reflects rebellion against what was a common practice in society in relation to courtship. Marriage partners respected their parents choices, and other aspects of a marriage union such as love, if ever there was any, fitted themselves into the marriage long after they had lived as husband and wife. But in the case of Fu and Yun, it is love that came first prior to their marriage. Contrary to what ought to have been the case Shen accepting whoever his parents chose for him, it was the parents who respected the whims of his heart. He had said to his mother If you are going to choose a wife for me, I will marry no other than Yun (Shen, 26).

Similarly, the girl was expected to be passive and covert in her feelings about her supposed groom. Chen, however, was very expressive of her physical attraction to Shen. During a wedding party, Chen let her feelings out when she hid rice porridge for Shen, and then lying to one of her other cousins that it had been finished. She also invited him to her room where, as a lover would do, she presented him with the hidden gift.
During the Ming Dynasty, rarely did a woman advise her husband what to do. Patriarchy was common, and men were supposedly the breadwinners. This is demonstrated by the economical challenges that faced Chens family following her fathers death. However, we see her striving to make ends meet, before and during her marriage to Shen. And when he left to study, she constantly wrote to him, telling him how he ought to work hard on his studies.

There experiences together could also be said to have been too romantic than the norm in 18th century China. After their wedding, they exhibited a kind of body language that reflected the bond of attraction and feelings of love between them. Shen writes that when he touched her, our souls became mist and smoke (Shen, 30). They also talked about subjects that portrayed a sense of romance, like discussing about the moon and flowers. Finally, Chens attempts to get him a concubine deviate from the expected gender norms. The fact that she was secretive about her mission demonstrates how she was conscious of the novelty of her actions. 

Nevertheless, their relationship also conformed to the gender norms present in Ming China. Shen struggled really hard to provide for the family as was expected of a husband. To some extent, Chen showed the passivity of a maiden when she became shy in the presence of Shen, after the embarrassing experience of getting discovered by her cousin that she had hidden porridge for her lover. Similarly, she refrained herself from getting drunk with wine, even when coerced by her husband to drink. The Ming dynasty gave little consideration to the education of girls. Consequently, most of them were significantly illiterate. As demonstrated by the poems that Chen attempted to write, this intellectual depravity suppressed their capacity to express their feelings through literary means such as poetry. In the Vignettes from the Late Ming, Yang Ye highlights how the Ming political class censored writings that portrayed the personal pleasures and passions (Yang 11). The means of expression were therefore limited to verbal communication, which was not very effective. In the chapter The Joys of the wedding chamber, Shen recounts how Yun stared at him, felt the currents of attraction and yet couldnt say a word.

In 18th century China, scholars constituted the elite class of the society, which led a much elevated life than the common peasants. Education was therefore the determinant factor in deciding ones social and economic status. Shen Fu aspired to live an upper class life, more so after acquiring an education. However, his grades were not sufficient to permit him entry into the governments official civil system. Consequently, he ended up working as a personal secretary of a magistrate. Thus, the level of education played a big role in allowing or shutting one from achieving social and economic mobility. His failure academically to make it to the top, and his expectations to live the life that society bestowed to a scholar conflicted, leading to cracks in their relationships. Since he could not make it through intellectual corridors, he left his family to try his hand on trade. The importance attached to education in socio-economic progress placed a lot of pressure on him, which eventually got his marriage by his failure to provide for his family. On a secretarys salary, he could not live the high status life of a magistrate. His wonderings afar, eventually, reflect his defiance to the status that society accorded him on account of his academic level. He desired to achieve his dreams by means other than those dictated by society.
   
The organization of the family unit during the Ming Dynasty was based on the extended family, where families lived together in a single homestead. In Shens autobiography, the disintegration of this extended unit is reflected by his banishment from the family home after domestic conflicts. This was a rare happenstance in the social set up of the 18th century.  This incidence is reflective of the family trends that set in during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. The extended family unit disintegrated into nuclear families, as sons started to separate from their parents homes. The industrial and agrarian revolution that followed the Qing dynasty also saw people move to new farming fields and commercial centers, thereby disrupting the traditional set up of family life.
   
In conclusion, the Six Records of a Floating Life portray a changing trend from the status quo of the Ming era. Shen represents an emerging generation that pursued individual goals, very different from what society expected of them. It also reflects his defiance to be content with what society had to offer him as a failed scholar. His love relationship with Chen indicated that people were becoming more aware of their individual needs and pursuing them, rather than bowing to societys norms. Though he eventually died a poor man, Shen had removed himself from the confines of socio-political and intellectual forces of his time.

Brunei

This paper throws insight into what Brunei was then and now. As a small country Brunei had to maintain a safe relationship with its neighbors like Malaysia to remain guarded. The period between 1961 and 1963 was crucial because world war was on the cards. The rebellion started in Brunei. Altogether, it was a difficult time for Brunei. The rebellions did not want Brunei to get along with Malaysia or did not like the domination of Malaysia over Brunei. So the conflicting opinions resulted in rebellious activities. Brunei overcame the situation with the help of British and restored peace and stability. Socialism and communism failed to overtake Brunei. Brunei was focused on reforming its economic and social sectors. It was heading towards the path of independence. To achieve this Brunei had to have cultural tie up with Malaysia and waited for the right moment. The United Kingdom played a major role in the debate over the issues at the time. Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta too played a major role in the issues concerned. Today, Brunei remains as an abode of peace. It is rich in cultural values. The people of Brunei are creative and innovative with a rich cultural background. The people do not pay tax. Oil and Gas constitute about 36 of the countrys Gross Domestic Product.  Brunei has rich natural resources and a strategic location within the region.

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study
Brunei was facing a crucial period between 1960 and 1963. The question then was if Brunei would join Malaysia. The rebellions acted violently with anti Malaysian sentiment. The United Kingdom played a major role in resolving the issue. Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta too played a major role. The history of Brunei dates back to 300 years before. We tend to know that though Brunei is small in size, it has got the faith and will to lead the country in the right direction. The 8 December 1962 was controversial leading to Brunei Revolt. Brunei was administered by British military after the world war II. The revolt was aimed at restoring the 150 years old sovereignty of the Sultan of Brunei. This movement against the present Sultan and the British was disturbing peace.

The present Sultan felt the need for being intact culturally and politically with Malaysia to gain independence from British and so he did not yield to the radical movements that arose. After all these struggles, today Brunei Darussalam stands for Adobe of Peace.

Statement of the Problem
Considering the population and area, Brunei was unsafe amidst its neighboring states. The Brunei today was known as Borneo once with a larger area of land with its culture originating from the Malay Archipelago. Oil wells, the surrounding neighbors, intervention of Europeans, the arrival of British, the rebellion against Malay dominance and Bruneis thrive for independence finally laid the path for Brunei to become an abode of peace today. Amidst all these interventions, Brunei did not get lost to any bigger force. The memorable day, the 8 December 1962 was controversial leading to Brunei Revolt.  However Brunei was heading towards self-government during this period. Brunei remained friendly and at the same time worked towards its goal of regaining its sovereignty and achieving independence. The credit goes to different sultans who had a sense of modernization and independence. For example Almarhum Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien Saadul Khairi Waddien III, Sultan Bolkiah, etc were wise in deciding the course of Brunei. The country averted any socialist or communist ideology and finally got independence.

Crusades and Islam

The use of the word crusade against the Islamic community in the war against terrorism after the 911 attack resulted into a big uproar among the Muslim communities all over the world. The use of the word by President Bush reawakened the incidences of the middle ages. Crusades were sequence of religious military attacks against the Islam by the powerful Roman Catholic Popes to reclaim the Christians holy lands. The holy lands had been captured by Islam societies after the fall of the Roman Empire. These crusades led to the recapturing of Jerusalem which was considered to be a Christian holy city. The main aim of the crusades was to stop the first expansion of the Islam religion and force the Muslim to be converted into Christians. The crusades were a response of the Roman Catholic Church through its influential and mad popes to a request by the Byzantine Empire to assist them fight against the Seljuk Turks Islam society which had gained the control of Anatolia in the present day Turkey. The crusades were therefore prompted by both political and religious reasons as well as economical reasons.  The crusades increased the rivalry between different religious groups as rival groups formed alliances against their opponents.
   
The implications of the crusades against the Muslim society were far reaching. Both the Roman Catholic community and the Muslim society were affected socially and politically by the crusades. The main cause of these crusades was the religious significance of the holy land to the Roman Catholic. The land was associated with the birth and ministry of Jesus who was the founder of Christianity. Before the fall of the Roman Empire, the land was under the control of Christians. However, in the seventh century, the Muslim community gained the control over the holy land. The crusades were as direct response by the Roman Catholic Church to the antagonism of Islam religion.
   
According to the Muslims perspective, the crusades main goal was to force the Muslim society to abandon their religion and be converted to Roman Catholics. On the other hand, the Christians believe that the Muslims were an enemy of the church. It was therefore the duty of the crusaders to fight and defend the church against Islam. The Roman Catholic Popes preached and taught their followers that the war against Islam and other rival religions was a penance. The crusaders were therefore considered soldiers of the church and were commissioned by the pope. There were nine crusades in which many people, both Muslims and Christians were killed. Both religions believed that they were fighting for their God against Satan.
   
The crusades have been considered by many historians as the major source of conflict between the two major religions of the world. The mutual hatred between the two religions has endured the test of time and is evident today. The memories of the crusades influence the relationship of the two religions. This can be used to explain the uproar of the Muslim against the use of the word crusade by President Bush on his war on terrorism. The United States being a Christian dominated society, crusades implies mass murder of innocent people to the Muslim society. The Muslims therefore perceived the United States war against terrorism as a war by the Christian dominated western world to eliminate Islam religion in the world.

Untouchable is cited as Mulk Raj Anands finest, yet most controversial novel. The book, in short, is a narration of a day in the life of Bakha, an eighteen year old sweeper who is conflicted about his status and position in life. In Untouchable, Anand expresses, with emotive and rich language, what it means to be an untouchable in a caste biased society. Bakha is a proud and attractive young man but he is an outcast in a system that is only now slowly changing its prejudices against the lower caste. It was a society likened to being as cruel and restrictive as apartheid. With this narrative of Bakha, the sweeper and latrine cleaner, Anand is applauded for presenting a candid version of the other India, an India that lives poorly, and with contempt, in villages and streets. This essay will try to analyze the social evils that had plagued Indian society at that period and the social reforms that had been taking place since.

 A conventional narrative with a strong story line is not what the readers should expect while reading Untouchable. E.M.Forster says that the book is simply planned but it has a form. The form he speaks of is likened to a superbly woven chain of pearls, done through all the related anecdotes. The novel has no conventional division of chapters, and tells the story of Bakha, an eighteen year old individualist, who envisions a life devoid of the bondages of caste and class barriers and who fights social evils with tooth and nail with his well idealized soul of a freedom fighter. He is the changing face of India belonging to the colonial era yet he is at the lowest of the social ladder where any change is unexpected. His search for identity is his primary occupation. In the book, he examines his inner self and his great potential and then measures both against the fossilized norms of a society that horribly try to constrain him.

Bakha (the central figure of the novel) is a human being and like us all, he has his own dreams and ambitions
He was a sweepers son and could never be a babu (gentleman). Later still he realized that there was no school which would admit him because the parents of the other children would not allow their sons to be contaminated by the touch of the low-caste mans sonsThese old Hindus were cruel. He was a sweeper, he knew, but he could not consciously accept the fact. He had began to work at the latrines at the age of six and resigned himself to the hereditary life of the craft, but he dreamed of becoming a sahib.

Bakha is one of the brightest members of his outcaste colony, which is segregated from the town and the cantonment both. He displayed superior skills in his work, not the kind of man who ought to be cleaning toilets. Ironically, given his inferior position in life, he was actually quite indispensable to both colonies. A man excelling in life from an inferior position could be praised with the sentiment, Here is a lotus that bloomed in grime. Perhaps Bakha of Bulashah is such a lotus, living amongst a village of outcastes on the fringes of civilized society. By birth he is an untouchable sweeper and the son of Lakha - a man who seemingly despises him.  Bakha elevates himself above his peers both in his mind as well as in his aspirations. Bakha, as his fate would have it, is an avid lover of fashion especially European fashion. He saves every bit of money he could to buy a fine cloth but the irony lies in the fact that he could not come near the stores of clothes because the owner of the store will drive him away because he is one of the members of the low-caste strata of the society. Bakha had revered the colonialist, the British, and stared at them with wonder and amazement ... and he had soon become possessed with an overwhelming desire to live their life.

It may be beneficial to take a quick look at the climate in which Anand wrote this novel, in order to understand better the authors perspective as well as the novels tone. While working on the novel, Anand came across Gandhis story of a Brahmin sweeper boy Uka in Young India magazine. The narrative propelled him to visit the leader. Accordingly he visited Sabarmati Ashram (Gandhis residence at the time) in order to glean Gandhis opinion about his novel. There he received guidance and feedback from Gandhi, a stay that proved useful to his professional career in writing this book, but also personally. There was a remarkable change in Anands social and spiritual understanding.

Untouchable can be better appreciated if the reader situates the novel within a tradition of protest literature, addressing caste issues in India and considering it as a predecessor of Dalit writing. Dalit writing specifically engages the topic of marginalization and deprivation of lower classes in modern India. The character of Bakha too is an interesting example of portrayal of Dalit characters in the history of Indian writing. While Bakha has been socialized into believing in his essential inferiority, there lurks just beneath the surface of humility and deference, a volcanic substratum of anger and violence that strains to erupt. Bakha becomes the predecessor of many Dalit literary figures who face the same problems as Bakha does in this novel. The solutions are often elusive to them, some times the solution is such that it becomes a farce, both socially and economically.

Anands powerful writing style unleashes a torrent of biases against the plethora of socially imposed limitations in Bakhas society. Apart from his sentiments about caste, he also fixes his gazes upon the inhuman attitude of the priest class, noting the scene where Bakha attempts to peek inside the temple. He is an untouchable, ergo, forbidden inside. Hence, when Bakha made the attempt, a priest humiliated him by shouting at him,

Polluted Polluted
Towards the end of Bakhas day, he follows a throng of people, drawn to the charismatic, subversive and rather confusing speech resonating out of Gandhi. Gandhi implored the untouchables to stop accepting poor treatment, and that ..untouchability (is) the greatest blot on Hinduism.

 Untouchable examines this relentless process with which a majority community (and caste) systematically alienates certain groups of people, apparently within its own fold, all in the name of religion and tradition. At the same time the novel exposes the searing effects of such segregation by considering the binary a new and united nation. Bakha is the alien within the nation, whose very touch is considered dirty and defiling. This notion of the upper caste Indians about the other half of it holds India back even now. If people like Bakha can not identify themselves with the majority of the people, how can any one imagine India to be a nation The social evils that come out from such alienation often result in anger and rage among the Dalits that threaten to go out of control and destabilize the notion of a nation-state by inheriting some of the characteristics of civil disobedience and widespread hatred.   

As irony is a powerful weapon in Anands literary expression, so also is his incisive understanding of a young mans cognitive journey. The effective amalgamation of tradition and modernity make the novel a playground for conflicting ideas. Gradually, all of the authors ideas take shape to culminate in the overall theme one mans resistance to the inflexible rules of his society, and with each interaction where he grapples with this theme, it generates a ripple in his psyche. Introspection seemingly matures him in stages. Meanwhile, his robust libido haunts him at times, though his desires show restraint. As we see in the novel, Bakha considers the Indian method of ablution with gargling and spitting, the Islamic way of purifying oneself in a peculiar ritual, and the open squatting of the Hindus in the morning to relieve themselves.

He fantasized about Ram Charans sister, and was conflicted between two feelings urges to embrace and ravish her and shame. He knew his identity was being forged right alongside his reputation, which he felt was at stake with every sensual feeling held toward Ram Charans sister and her sylph-like form. Meanwhile, he is condemned to the profession of cleaning waste, for he knows that a sweepers son can never be a babu. It is better to devote oneself wholeheartedly to the hereditary life of the craft. Detestation and anger, aggression and self-pity, reality and poetry act and react within the framework of the novel. Reflection, questionings, introspection, analysis and polemic come at intervals in between the riotous happenings. Bakha translates in his own way Gandhis ideas of equality of rights, privileges and opportunities for every one and finds standing alone in the commotion of social transformations.

This transformation cools his body and soul as he searches for his identity within himself and within the society he lives into. The journey never ends for Bakha. The emotional journey ends but there starts another journey, the physical journey towards his home. The transformations of space and time have gathered all the elements that have dispersed in the stream of his thought and cemented within him an assertion of self through the process of self-respect and self-valuation.