Contemporary Middle East.

Samuel Huntington characterises civilization in terms of religion.  His Clash of Civilizations theory claimed that the end of the Cold War saw an end to ideological organisation of international politics and that cultural and religious identity would now become the organizing principle of future global conflicts. This is the central hypothesis of his work.

Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world 
affairs but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. (Huntington, 1993).

Huntington distinguished seven, or possibly eight civilizations  Western, Sinic, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin American and, possibly, African.   Religions appear to be the main criteria in his classification and he divided the worlds major civilizations using a series of historical studies.  Huntington also claimed in his thesis that the Wests belief in the ability for its values and norms to politically organize the international system based on the ideology of liberal democracy and the insistence on its universality would aggravate other civilizations.  In his thesis he also comments on a clash between the West and Islam concerning Western universalism, the belief that all civilizations should adopt values and norms has intensified Islamic fundamentalism, he wrote that a clash between these two civilizations would be the bloodiest conflicts of the early 21st century (Huntington, 1993).  The attacks of September 11 on the World Trade Centre and the consequential so called War on Terror, including the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, appear to support his hypothesis.

The United Nations (UN) also condemned the attack of 911 and the language used in the UN Charter and Declaration of Human Rights speak of an international community with a particular set of values and norms.  The UN charter begins with We the peoples, and what it claims to speak for is a set of norms and values that are understood to be universally acknowledged, and that this is what constitutes the international community (Bromley, 2004).  However the set of values and norms that the UN constitutes are often argued to be those of the west therefore represent the interests of the west as opposed to an international community. 

The realist theory of international politics depicts that states are in constant competition for power, and whilst power and interests influence what states do and want to achieve nation states avoid the vocabulary associated with power that is connected to the realist model of the international.   The discourse of international politics is expressed with carefully chosen words in order to persuade, striking at the heart of citizens.    Cultural identity is a basic need, and political leaders of a nation state are the protectors of that states national identity and cultural beliefs, even when a state may be multi-cultural a national culture and identity, its values and norms are generally shared by its citizens. The discourse of politics is to persuade however after the attacks of 911 there is a real threat from terror but it cannot placed at the heart of Islam as not all Muslims have fundamentalism at the heart of their cultural beliefs, Islam after all is a religion of peace.  However the threat of terror is apparent and ongoing.

On Christmas Day 2009 a failed attack by al Qaeda on an airliner in the US brought to the table discussions at a conference in London between world leaders concerning Yemens failing economy.   A concern of dissent within Yemen and fears of terrorist groups gaining a strong foothold within the nation threatens the western world.  The group have initiated a group The Friends of Yemen.  The IMF and World Bank consequently based in the US with the ideology of liberalism attached to many of their loans, an ideology proclaimed to have western values, have already leant money to the failing nation in 2006 most of which is unspent.  The Friends of Yemen will help dispense the money throughout the country as they feel do not have the capacity to do so themselves.  There is an eloquent and careful use of discourse here in the naming of this delegation and there is also reason for substantiation of Huntingtons theory.  Intelligence officials have concerns that al Qaeda have an opening to operate in a Muslim country whose people may rebel in times of economic crisis, British officials at the time of writing have also expressed that Western Muslims are travelling to Yemen in search of radicals (Stringer, 2010).  This situation highlights the threat imposed by cultural difference on the one hand but on the other hand if the threat is between civilizations the British authorities clearly state that it is Western Muslims who are traveling to Yemen in search or radical clerics. 

Edward Said argued against Huntingtons Clash of Civilizations theory.   In his response to Huntingtons thesis he wrote The Clash of Ignorance.  In it he points out that Huntingtons thesis neglects to include that cultures do interact and do have interdependency, Huntington categorizes civilizations as fixed.  There is no room for harmony in Huntingtons thesis as each civilization is self enclosed that it is an imagined geography with no room for movement.  A political discourse therefore aimed at ensuring the west maintain a sense of threat and war time status in their minds, a continuity of thought patterns in order to linger the western world in the cold war mind set.  (Said 2001). 

Said thesis allows room for movements and interaction in a harmonious juxtaposition of cultures.  The issue that many Muslims have is that liberal rights cultures are secularized and therefore implicate their cultural identity because of the fundamental need of Islam to live by the Sharia.  Global rights become powerful at the local level, when groups and individuals from one particular cultural identity wish to change their way of lives.  Huntingtons clash of civilizations theory becomes irrelevant at this point as a global rights culture that is willingly accepted is not confined to regional and homogenous civilization blocs and therefore not a clash of cultures as cultures become willingly altered and shared whilst maintaining their own religious identities.  Therefore this confirms that individual community culture can coexist alongside a cosmopolitan culture.

What bind all Muslims are the Quran and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. The contestation of ideals between the west and Islam cannot be representative of all Muslims.  There are three types of Islamic political orientations, conservative or salaf, radical and militant, reformist and modernist.   Reformist Muslims are concerned with rights and democracy and seek to integrate these into their culture, they lobby for economic and social programmes and reforms and wish to incorporate issues of human rights into the Shari a, the religious law of Islam, by reinterpreting religious law to accommodate universal rights and reforms. 

Conservatives on the other hand are opposed to universal rights and attempt to persuade governments to develop policy around the implementation and execution of religious law and censorship of all outside cultural influences and products (Zubaida, 2004).  For conservative Muslims man-made law is a law made purely out of self intersect.   Those who follow the militant and radical orientation also attempt to persuade governments but often through violent action.  They take their directive from their own interpretation of the Quran and find all governments who do not practice the application of religious law as corrupt.  Sayid Qutb who was a member of the Muslim Brotherhood claimed that any state that lived by the rule of man-made law and not by the law and word of god was an infidel authority.   

Huntingtons compartmentalization of powerful cultures into categories such as the Muslim World or Western Civilization generated criticism due to its failure to explain how geopolitical realities existed in socio and economic relations between the US and Saudi for example and how other civilizations such as Turkey as a Muslim country opened their trade barriers and welcomed democracy.   Surely this is a contradiction of a clash.  His most controversial point was that Islam has bloody borders.   He comes to this conclusion arguing that civilization clashes i.e. conflicts are particularly prevalent between Muslims and non-Muslims.   He based this on historical context but also believes that contributing factors to Islam being involved in so many fault line wars are that Christianity and Islam are both missionary religions, that the two faiths are all or nothing and that the two faiths and the values of the faiths represent the purpose of existence (Huntington, 1993)   . 

As mentioned earlier the language that is used in the UN Charter and Declaration of Human Rights is something that is debated.  The word universal implies that there is a single set of norms that is recognized by all Huntington implies that a universal civilization is in fact a Western idea.  He states that the values and norms of democracy and rights are associated with the West and that other cultures in relation to this appear to be marginalized (Huntington, 1993). Edward Said argues that cultures do compete with each other and all wish to dominate.  What needs to be questioned is whether interactions in the international arena are concerned with self-interest and contests for power on political and economical levels, and whether the institutions in the international system represent the values and norms of the most powerful.

Huntingtons thesis may be flawed however since Huntington wrote Clash of Civilizations a number of events have occurred that appear to add substance to his theoryUnited States invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, the Bali, London and Madrid bombings, the Iranian nuclear crisis, the conflicts between Israel and Gaza and Israel and Lebanon to name a few.  

Chinese Religion.

The Death of Woman Wang by Jonathan D. Spence provides the reader with a comprehensive idea of existence in a small province in Northern China, in the 1670s. The author developed this book as a historical restoration of Tan-cheng County, in Shantung Province.  This is an area within the tributaries of the Yellow River, but not far away from the sea. According to the introduction, the author was provoked to investigate Tan-cheng County after learning about the tale of woman Wang. By taking us through the Tan-cheng County, the author paints a picture of a region that is ever threatened by an endless period of floods, crop failures, heavy taxation and banditry. Yet against this chaotic milieu a determined tax collector, a petulant farmer, and dejected wife performs out an emotional tragedy whose height the wife, having deserted her husband, returns to him, but dies on his hands. As the Chinese religion flourished and defined their cultures.

This scenario superbly evokes the ancient china, while The Death of Woman Wang by Jonathan D. Spence critically roots our understanding of the modern China deeply. Journal of three voyages by Charles Gutzlaff presents a different but profound perception of china. Intricately he has explored the concept of religion in regard to the Chinese civilization. In his opinion he notes that, Chinese people have peculiar tributes towards religion (Gutzlaff 5). Painting the Chinese people as pantheists, Gutzlaff attempts to argue on the ground that,
 Christianity is the only religion that can only create an environment of sanctity among these people.

Though, it seems they dwelt on the concept of materialism, it is paramount to understand that, for generations, the only known religion revolved around the worship of nature. This is evidenced by the fact that, all political leaders also were in practice of worshipping heaven and earth (Gutzlaff 326). Comparing this phenomenon with what Jonathan D. Spence observed in regard to China, it is paramount to state that, from ancient times Chinese had developed their mode of civilization. This is intricately reflected in the book The Death of Woman Wang where Spence presents a new approach to religion in that transparency and trust are cherished in the society. Consider the scenario where Huang a magistrate in Tan-cheng County is a Chinese imperial official, who had passed his Confucian examinations (Spence 9). 

He realized that Tan-cheng was a deprived region, and the inhabitants were devastated. Honestly, he advocated for the tax loads of community to be cut, especially in areas where the people were in the real danger of starvation. This picture introduces the fact that, Tan-cheng County was a civilized region and this indicates that, it had established religious standards, where social ethics were respected. Reflecting the manner by which Spence creates the common approach to social integration in this region, it quite important to note that, the people had strong ties to religion. This can be linked to the fact that, they people Tan-cheng in time of crisis worshipped the City God. Hence, they believed as Spence (49) noted The City God is Majestic on High.

Despite such observation, Gutzlaff established that Chinese had a profound opinion in regard to religion, unlike Spence who presents a religious society entwined in gambling, poverty and banditry. Gutzlaf, observations indicates that idolatry gained ascendancy at a very early stage (322). This provides crucial understanding of Chinese religion in that, it gives a clear picture of the key characteristics that defined religion. Thus, it is instrumental to say that, idolatry which was commonly complimented by sacrifices defined Chinese concepts of religion.

Nevertheless, Spence attempts to present more civilized China, with a moderated religious tenets where family ties tend to be the pillars of religion in regard to cultural dictums. Therefore, exploring the diverse religious observation presented by the two authors, it is evident that, Chinese exercised more than one form of religion. Perhaps, this can be attributed to the fact that, like any other human beings, they had an innate desire to understand their destiny. Hence, Spence talks of ghosts, while Gutzlaf speaks of Shang-te. Therefore, it is not strange that, The Death of Woman Wang depicts a picture of Confucian in 17th century china. And this creates a scenario where, the Chinese people embraced certain social standards which had their roots in religion. This included transparency as well as respecting their gods in all situations. Thus, it can be argued that, Spence constructs a clear picture of a people and their religion which was characterized by concepts of Confucianism.

Typically, Spence builds argument around relationships, and this principally reflects one of he many ideas presented in the book. For instance, the husband was viewed as the head of the family and he was justified to punish the wife (Spence 121). Hence, he presents the notion of filial piety, which is measured among the utmost of virtues and must be shown to both the living and the dead. Looking at such perceptions, it is obvious that, the Chinese had developed a systematic approach to religion, due to Confucianism among other religions.   

However, comparing what Gutzlaff presents, it is apparent he views ancient Chinese religion as paganism and this differs significantly with the religious characteristics presented in The Death of Woman Wang. Thus, the practices adopted in the 17th century by Chinese greatly contradict what Gutzlaff recorded in his journals. Though, he can be said to be condemning Chinese religion which he indicates is greatly rooted in the idolatry. However, examining the story of Woman Wang, it is instrumental to note that, despite various challenges surrounding the inhabitants of Tan-cheng County, as Spence learned As Huang Liu-hung found when he came to Tan-cheng to serve as magistrate in 1670, the peoples problem was one of basic survival- physical and moral- in a world that seemed to be disintegrating before their eyes (Spence 9). Thus religion offered the greatest solace.

The two authors are traversing two dissimilar paths this can be linked to the fact that, while Spence is introducing a new perception of religion in China, Gutzlaff presents another dimension depicting Chinese as a lost people who needs Christianity to be liberated from the chains of idolatry. All in all, it can be said that, Spence offers a very open and ethical sense of religion, in that, he has managed to establish that, honesty, transparency as well as respect plays a central role in defining Chinese religion. This observation is intricately imprinted in the common lives of the ordinary Chinese folks. Though, Spence have dwelled more on the ordinary Chinese folks who includes the peasants, their wives as well as the non educated individuals, it is important to realize that, he has presented the approach towards religion strongly. Thus, it can be said that, Chinese civilization was more influenced by religion. Think of Buddhism think of Christianity, what of Confucianism, all these religions in one way or the other defined the Chinese approach to life. Though, the writers differs greatly on some facts, but it is important to accept that, what Gutzlaff stood for and appreciate as the concepts of Chinese religion, greatly differed with what Spence recognized as the predominant  characteristics of Chinese religion. Therefore, in regard to what the two authors have presented, it is instrumental to understand that, religion tenets changes with time, and that is why what Gutzlaff observed in one way or the other differed with Spences observations

Christianity in Early Modern Japan Kirishitan Belief and Practice.

The aim of this research is to argue the importance of internal political influences during the Tokugawa period that influenced the appeal of Christianity in Japan for centuries to come. In addition to that, we can also argue that these internal political conflicts impacted Japan substantially in terms of history and culture, and economy for at least 250 years. It was the advent of Christianity that influenced the behavior of Tokugawa to complete close the borders of Japan, hence altering history permanently. However, even after the closure of borders, Christianity remained in practice in japan, although it was practiced clandestinely, and the hidden Christians, or the Karuke Kirishitans, as they were called, continued to impact Japanese culture and politics.

The advent of St.Francis Xavier and the Portuguese Christian missionaries market the beginning of Christianity in Japan. Before Christianity, japan was largely a Buddhist nation ruled by monarchy and feudal system. With the advent of Christianity, a significant impact on the existing society and culture started to occur. Christianity brought with it a whole new moral and ethical code which was largely incompatible with the existing norms of society. This resulted in the clash between the traditional Japanese society and newly growing Christian minority. With the increase of Christians, need was felt to build more churches  this resulted in violent clashes with the Buddhist majority there, who did not favor this new developments. Also, as adherents of Christianity grew, the newly converted Christians tended to be very fundamentalist about their new religion, their toleration of of non-believers grew less due to the incompatibilities in their respective moral code. These new converts then became involved in violence against the Buddhists, who retaliated with the same (Higashibaba).

When the Japanese were converted to Christianity, they were given new teaches about their religion, but it did not end at that. The missionaries that were coming to Japan encouraged the new converts to adopt western culture (Higashibaba). They were given new Christian names at baptism and were being given a whole new culture. Inasmuch the change of religion was being tolerated to such a small extent already, this coerced change of culture came to be regarded very suspiciously among the Japanese.

The main reason for toleration of Christians in japan up till now was the fact that they brought trade with them (Elison), which was extremely beneficial to the economy, especially the existing feudal class. However, the Christian morality was being taught to the masses of japan, which said that all men are created equal. This annoyed the feudal class because it challenged the established status quo. This was the time when Tokugawa Ieyasu ruled over Japan. He saw these new preachings as a threat to his authority and crown, and decided that to save his authority he must overcome this new phenomenon that is trying to change the culture, religion and morality of the country. He did this by banishing the missionaries from the country, outlawing Christianity and persecuting Christians. As much as 3000 Christians were killed in this pogrom (Elison). At the time, the total population of Christians in Japan was around 300000.

Due to the lack of understanding of the Christian religion, Ieyasu regarded all Christian teachings as a plot to overthrow his regime. He was already suspicious of the fact that Japanese culture was slowly being westernized, the teachings of equality he considered to be the next step to make him weaker. Not only that, he considered all Christians to be working for Toyotomi force (Higashibaba) which was the political rival faction at the time. He saw the elimination of the Christians in general and the foreign missionaries in particular a way to destroy his political rivals. And hence, foreigners were banished and Japanese borders were closed for the next 250 years.

After getting rid of the foreigners, he wanted to restructure the Japanese society internally, therefore he ordered all citizens to register themselves at Buddhist temples and reaffirm their affiliating with the Buddhist religion. To make an example out of it and discourage other Japanese to take interest in Christianity, he tortured the now famous twenty-six martyrs of Japan and crucified them on crosses outside Nagasaki in 1597 (Higashibaba). Christianity was effectively banned in japan from that point onwards. However, out of the 300000 adherents of Christianity, many did not abandon their beliefs and continued to practice Christianity as an underground subculture. These were called the Kakure Kirishitan, the hidden Christians. These secret Christians kept their religious affiliations hidden, as well as the Christian iconography in their closed shrines (Elison).

By closely researching this topic we can know about the correlation between the advent of Christianity in Japan and the closure of Japan from the rest of the world. At initial inspection, it may seem that these two are directly correlated, however there are various other factors that we must take into account. For example the internal politics and the existing structure of Japanese society might have played a large part in influencing the decision to close the borders of Japan. Another topic of interest is the condition of the hidden christians at the time when they were being persecuted, and their eventual reemergence when forieign missionaries were alloed in japan at around 1853, and their eventual acceptance around 1870 when freedom of religion was allowed in Japan finally under Meiji Restoration (Higashibaba).

As we do not have much primary sources and data to rely on for the research of this topic, we need to research from secondary sources. The two books that I will be primarily using for this research give a holistic perspective about the evolution of religion in Japan, particularly Christianity. The book by Ikuo Higashibaba gives insight about modern day practice of Christianity in japan in terms of its historical perspective from a native Japanese. His strengths lie in the in-depth view into the historical practice and evolution of Christianity in Japan. George Elisons book on the other hand is more aligned towards the present day practice of Christianity in Japan. He has devided his work into three parts, the introduction of Christianity in japan, its persecution and expulsion, and then its eventual acceptance in Japan. The strength of this book lie in the fact that there are numerous translation of Japanese historical texts about Christianity, which may give us a deeper insight into the practice and evolution of Christianity in that region. The weakness of this book lies in the introduction phase, which gives and outdated narration of introduction of Christianity in Japan.

The Kakure Kirishitan in Japan.

In this research, I am going to argue that internal political influences during the Tokugawa period have greatly affected the appeal of Christianity in the Japan, and that these internal political influences has led into threats to Christianity which has contributed to the significant reduction of the foreign contacts. This study presumes that the history of the Karuke Kirishitan or the Hidden Christians has contributed significantly to the country s culture and religion.

Christianity in Japan officially began when St. Francis Xavier arrived on the shores of Kagoshima this led to the Christian Century, which is ninety years of Christianity in Japan. The building of Christian churches resulted in the destruction of Buddhist temples and involved the burning and casting into sea of various Buddhist artifacts. This led to various rifts between the Buddhist and the Christians communities (Turnbull 29). The differences between Buddhism and Christianity were certainly going to create rifts, since Christianity preaches that other forms of religion are heretic, there is a heaven and hell, and that not everyone will be saved (Mason and Caiger 102).

When Tokugawa Ieyasu reigned over Japan, he permitted Christian missionaries to preach in Japan for they were able to bring commerce along with them. However, when the missionaries began preaching about  the equality of all men before God,  this did not please Ieyasu for he saw that preaching about equality violated his promotion of the feudal caste system in Japan apart from this, the feudal caste system was what he was using to control his various subjects under the Samurai (Nosotro).

Eventually, Ieyasu decided to deport the missionaries and conducted a brutal persecution of all those who believed in the Christian faith. This persecution resulted in around 3,000 martyrs among the 300,000 Japanese who believed in Christianity. Since Ieyasu feared that Christianity may defeat his purpose, he ordered everyone to register themselves at a Buddhist temple and closed all of   Japan s ports to international trade to prevent Christianity from entering the country  (Nosotro). Apart from this, Ieyasu believed that the Christians were working for and supporting his political rivals, the Toyotomi force. He saw that by eliminating the Kirishitan, he would be ultimately preventing the Toyotomi force s return to power (Higashibaba 138). After Christianity was banned and Ieyasu closed all of Japan s ports, Japan shunned the rest of the world for the next 250 years (OMF International).

However, according to Stephen Turnbull, from 1614 to 1873 Japan, there were underground communities who believed in the Christian faith amidst the risk of persecution (1). These communities were the forerunners of the Kakure Kirishitan or the Hidden Christians. Although the government was intent on establishing absolute control over its people, the Kakure Kirishitan held onto their faiths ( Christianity ).
This topic holds my interest for this will enable me to determine the various related aspects that led Japan to close itself to the world. It may seem that the answer is that Christianity pushed Japan to close itself however, I want to be able to determine the underlying factors that pushed Japan into that historical event. Apart from determining the effects of Christianity on the Japanese society, I also aim to determine what happened to the Kakure Kirishitan community when they began to re-emerge sometime in the 1860s.

This research will rely on various related literature such as books and studies. Since the research is about an analysis of a historical event in Japan, the researcher will mostly use secondary sources although primary sources will be highly appreciated, the researcher deems it unrealistic to assume that primary sources are to be found readily within the country. Since the research is an analysis, the researcher will rely on historical accounts of the event and would conduct rigorous research as to determine the accuracy of said accounts.

The central argument of Wang Nings Orientalism vs. Occidentalism is that constructions of the two concepts of Orientalism and Occidentalism have heretofore been limited by the personal biases of Edward Said, in that he does not give much account to the Orient that lies beyond the Near and Middle East and thus limits his critique not just in a geographical sense, but in ideological and cultural senses as well. Ning argues that the future of Occidentalist strategies lies in recognizing that East-West cultural relations should not only be extended beyond the boundaries set by Said, but that they should never be reduced to absolutes, and therefore Occidental and Oriental conceptions in the modern age must be predicated on cultural relativism. Simply put, Nings primary contention is that for the seeds of Saids critical approach to cultural studies to retain relevance, it is necessary to problematize it.

The primary weaknesses of Wang Nings piece is that its argument is that its validity rests on the assumption that political and cultural ideological relations between the East and the West can easily be conflated down to historical relationships  colonial or not. Unfortunately, this means that Ning does not take into consideration that ideological attitudes may exist beyond the parameters of these macro-histories. For example, Occidentalist attitudes may emerge in Islamic individuals outside of an opposition to Western hegemony or emerge in Orients outside of the parameters of colonialism. Simply put, Ning makes the mistake of abstracting Occidentalism as experienced by the individual from the general collective (that being the ethnic, cultural and national identity of said individual).

This is a disappointment, as Nings attention to the personal background of Said (as Occidental-trained scholar with an Orient ethnicity) suggests an ability to recognize how these qualities can color the discursive and ideological biases of the individual. Yet, Ning fails to acknowledge how the plurality that the individuals relativistic and personal relationship with East-West history brings to the picture of defining political and cultural relationships. Also, while Ning makes a noteworthy indictment of the use of Occidentalism to combat Western hegemony  arguing that it is not only illusive and problematic, but that it does not suffice as a binary counterpart to Orientalism  there is much neglect with regards to the criteria by which one measures any potential response to Orientalism.

Still, an alternative argument is within reach of Nings approach to the matter What is needed is a reconfiguration of the conception of Orientalism, a destabilization of the idea if you will, that allows room for a proper Occidental response. Simply put, the entire spectrum of Western-developed Orientalisms must be defined according to relativistic and individual terms such that the correct Occidental counterpart can account for the relativistic and individual engagement which Orientals have with East-West cultural relations.

Choson Dynasty.

The Choson Dynasty is still on record as one of Koreas longest-lived dynasties. Its establishment in 1392 marked the end of the rule of the deposed Koryo Dynasty which was replaced by the Yi family (Chonju branch). The founder of the Choson, Yi Songgye, named the new dynasty after an ancient kingdom, the Choson kingdom, and moved the capital city from Kaesong to Hanyang (Seoul).  The new dynasty sought to rebuild their diplomatic ties with their neighbours, the Ming Chinese, and ended hostilities with the nomadic tribes from the northern territories. The Choson dynasty was blamed for severe oppression of Buddhism and its followers. The Choson dynasty was in favour of Confucianism and went ahead to put in place a strict structure of social hierarchy which split the citizenry into four clear-cut castes based largely on the socio-economic standing and heredity of the people. The Choson dynasty was marred by serious and bloody uprisings of the low-class citizens on who were imposed heavy tax burdens and who were denied land rights.

Relations between Korea and Japan during the Choson era were not always healthy. The Imjin War marked one of the most disastrous periods in the relations between the two countries. Internal unrests and external attacks shook the dynasty severely during the 16th and 17th century, forcing the leadership to adopt an isolationist stance, leading to the establishment of what was referred to as the hermit kingdom. After a long period of relative calm and peace, the strength of the Choson dynasty started waning rapidly again towards the end of the 19th century, culminating in the end of the dynasty in 1910. The marks left by the dynasty are still evident in modern Korea. This paper focuses on Koreas relationships with her neighbours and other countries from the region, Europe, and North America. It also discusses the social structures manifest during the Choson dynasty.

Choson dynasty and social stratification
Koreas social structures as inherited from the overthrown dynasty were bound for change from the moment the Choson dynasty embraced Confucianism as the official religion. The Choson dynasty leaders were ambitious in enforcing the principle of the Confucianism philosophy. Known for strict doctrines and clear-cut social stratification mechanisms, it was predictable that the citizenry would be divided along their socio-economic lines.

The Confucian scholars of the Choson dynasty went ahead to establish a clear line between the ruling class and the ruled. Korean people were divided into several castes which were hereditary. Though the society had been stratified even before the Choson dynasty gained power, the divisions had not been as strict and social mobility was possible. The king occupied the apex of the structure together with members of the royal family, making him the most powerful person in the nation. Confucianism required that the leader leads his subordinates by example, while his subordinates were charged with the duty of obeying and remaining loyal to the king. Lee observes that according to the Confucius philosophy, the ruler should employ the service of hisher subjects in accordance with the rites, whereas the subjects should serve their ruler by doing their best.
Immediately below the king were the Confucian scholars who formed the aristocrat class, or the yang bin (Kim 48). As noted earlier, the Choson dynasty embraced Confucianism as the official religion and was keen on creating a nation on the Confucian philosophy. Not surprisingly, one of the initial steps the dynasty took on assuming power was shifting the capital from Kaesong, where Buddhism was more influential, to Seoul which was governed through a well-balanced and sophisticated political system based on Confucian principles (Kim 49).

This class comprised the ruling elite and also drew membership from the top echelons of the military and civil service who actually controlled Koreas culture, economy and the government. The yangban were recruited through a rigorous process which emphasized on wisdom and discipline, and were expected to continuously sharpen or upgrade their wisdom throughout by studying the Confucian doctrine continuously with the ultimate aim of becoming sages. To join the yangban, it was compulsory for one to pass imperial or civil service examinations. On paper, anyone could take the examinations (with little regard of their economic or social standing) and was assured of a place in the civil service on passing the examination. In reality though, only those from wealthy and well-connected backgrounds were able to support themselves while they prepared for the examinations. According to the New World Encyclopedia, cases of rigging and other malpractices in favour of the candidates from wealthy families were not uncommon. As such, the yangban was sort of a closed class whose membership was restricted largely to wealthy families and their sons. Members of the class guarded their class jealously as anyone who fell from the class to a lower class, for failing the examination or another reason, would find it impossible to climb back and would thus be confined to the lower class into which his descendants would now belong to, with little or no hope of regaining their yangban status (Baker 843).

Like the royalty, members of the yangban were exempted from taxes and could breach some restrictions including night-time curfews without attracting any consequences. To protect their elite status and keep others from joining the class, most members of the yangban class only married other members of the class (Park 40). Though marriages between yangban and members of the lower rungs were not unheard of, they were few and far between, and were riddled with complexities of the class to which their offspring would belong.

The yangban controlled the military, the civil service, the municipalities and the central government. During the early years of the Choson dynasty, the yangban system was professional and largely corruption-free. The tides changed with the Seven-Year War following which the greed and corruption of the members of the class became obvious through their actions. The yangban received a stipend for their positions with the civil service. However, they started receiving bribes from those who wanted positions in the civil service and the military. As their greed intensified, crooked yangban developed a mechanism of dispossessing peasants of their land. They would impose very high taxes on the peasants and would quickly move in and seize the land when the peasants were slow or unable to honor the tax obligations. Corruption in the yangban ranks made it possible for people to fake their ancestries and claim membership to the class. Others bought their way into the yangban making the class a largely incompetent and corrupt class, driven only the tax exemptions and other benefits that members of the class were entitled to (Karlsson 557).

The rank immediately below the yangbin was held by administrative and technical officials. This class, the chungin was made up of artists, astronomers, interpreters, and military professionals. By virtue of their technical and administrative capabilities, this class was crucial in regional administration. Although they could qualify to join the yangban, their ancestries blocked their way up. The chungin ruled the local regions (Country Studies, n.d).

The largest proportion of the population was restricted to classes below the chungin. The sangmin (the commoners) made up to 75 percent of the Korean population. The commoners class comprised farmers, merchants and craftsmen. Members of this class could be, and were often, forcefully conscripted into the military and were the subject of heavy taxation regimes imposed by the yangban. The Choson dynasty had shifted its focus from commerce to agriculture immediately it took power. The predominantly agrarian economy therefore depended heavily on tax revenue from the farming community. The corrupt yangban found the liberty to impose ridiculously high taxes failure to pay which the farmers risked losing their farmlands to the fraudulent and greedy government officials. Flawed taxation regulations and demands were at the heart of numerous internal uprisings and intense friction between the commoners and the ruling elite, and contributed significantly to the cracks which weakened the hold of the dynasty on the power. Recurrent occurrences of bad weather conditions and subsequent crop failures seriously reduced the countrys tax revenues (Park  Yang 314). The tax exemption structures were riddled with corruption, enabling wealthy landlords to get tax exemptions while the oppressed peasant farmers bore the full weight of the repulsive tax obligations, creating an environment ripe and suitable for bloody internal confrontations between the oppressed peasants and the military (Karlsson 559).

Below the commoners were the chommin or the base people who were regarded as the societys lowest people. Like the rest of the classes, members of this class remained within by virtue of the heredity and therefore carried little hope of climbing to the higher castes. The chommin were assigned duties which were regarded as low-class or unclean. They thus included servants and slaves, female entertainers (kisaeng), shoe makers, executioners, actors and jailkeepers. The slaves, or Nobis, were owned by the government while others were owned privately by government officials and wealthy landlords. The Nobi system had already been part of Koreas life for more than a thousand years before the establishment of the Choson dynasty.  The paekchong, who were said to have descended from the Nomadic tribes of the Inner Asia, dealt with meat and hides, a practice considered unclean and which led to their segregation. Buddhist monks and nuns, after the Choson leadership settled for Confucianism and the official state religion, found themselves in this dishonoured class.

The Nobis generally respected the social structure and rarely escaped or turned against their owners. During times of dire need, particularly during the Japanese and Manchuria invasions, thousands of Nobis were set free on condition that they joined the military to fight the invading forces. When the Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshis forces launched their destructive and bloody campaigns against the Koreans, the Nobis jumped at the opportunity to torch government offices and archives in order to destroy records of their low status of servitude (Country Studies, n.d). At the end of the invasions, the Nobis would be taken back to their rightful owners. This seasonal and opportunistic liberation of Nobis planted the seed of violent resistance which took root in the late seventeenth century when Korea was under King Sukjong. For centuries, the Nobis had been the victims of violence and other forms of mistreatments at the hands of their masters. The masters, many of who were yangban, were largely immune from legal proceedings sometimes initiated against them by their slaves. With their liberation, the Nobis began responding to violence from their masters with an equally heavy hand, only the Nobis were many times more violent on and than their masters, choosing to engage in such violent resistance actions as physically assaulting or murdering masters, to raping their wives or daughters, to participation in coup detats and outright rebellion (Kim 49).

Choson dynasty and international relations

The Goryeo Dynasty had placed much emphasis on international trade and had thus established good cross border trade relations with the Chinese, Manchurians, Japanese and the Arabians with whom she traded. Korea was an important source of jewelries, silk, brocades, ginseng, and celadon porcelain. Korean porcelain was valued highly and was particularly sought after by Arabians and the Chinese. When the Choson dynasty replaced the Goryeo dynasty, it toned down the emphasis on commerce in favour of agriculture. The relationships between Choson Korea and her neighbours and former trade partners started waning.

After the defeat of the Goryeo dynasty, Koreas relationships with her neighbours ranged from good and amicable, to cold and bloody. The founder of the Choson dynasty, General Yi, sought to establish good relations with her neighbour China which was then governed by the Ming dynasty. The Ming dynasty became friendly to the Choson dynasty because it regarded Korea as a client state. Little did Koreans, and the world, expect that Korea would soon host and become the victim of numerous and recurring armed conflicts among larger outside countries among them China, Japan, Russia, France and Britain (Asia for Educators, 2009). Like the proverbial shrimp (of the Korean proverb Korae ssawume saewudung Tojinda which translates loosely to When whales are fighting, shrimps backbone gets broken), Korea was to suffer injuries as larger powers fought.

As a result of the healthy relationship between Korea and China, the influence of China and its people on Korean culture took hold during this period. The leadership of the Choson dynasty built its leadership structure by borrowing heavily from the Chinese bureaucracy. The Confucian philosophy on which the Choson dynasty was built actually originated from China. It is through China that Korea was to import Western ideas including Catholicism which reached Korea in the seventeenth century. The good relationship between China and Korea was evident when China rose militarily to defend her friend from armed attacks by other countries in the region.

The relationship between Choson dynastys Korea and Japan were however less rosy. In the late 16th century, Korea was invaded by the Japanese armed forces who visited immense destruction and devastation on the militarily weaker Korea. Although China came to Koreas aid and helped repel the Japanese, the Choson dynasty was badly devastated by the seven-year long and the dynasty was command of the dynasty was badly challenged. The Choson dynasty had turned down Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshis request to make way for him to invade China. When Koreas leadership rejected his request, Hideyoshi and his forces turned their weapons on Korea, initiating a war that would persist for the better part of the next seven years and, destroying the Korean peninsula while forcibly relocating thousands of Koreas technicians and artisans to Japan. The war only came to an end following the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi but not before devastating both Ming China and Choson Korea.

As if the clouds of evil were still hanging over Korea, more bloody clashes were to follow shortly. The Manchu tribes of Manchuria launched their attack on northwestern Korea in 1627. The Manchu were a nomadic tribe from continental Asia and were interested in conquering China. The Manchu people were interested in attacking China but first attacked and intimidated Chinas friend Korea, forcing Korea to pay tribute to the king of the Manchu. The two Manchuria attacks of 1627 and 1637 weakened the hold of the Choson dynasty even more. The Choson dynasty had little choice but to become a tribute of the Qing dynasty which had replaced the Ming dynasty in China after the latter was weakened irreparably by the Japanese. The warlike Manchus would in 1644 conquer China. The Qing dynasty also suffered numerous attacks from European powers including Britain, France and Russia. Weak, and with enough problems of its own, the Qing dynasty could not protect Choson dynastys Korea as the Ming dynasty had done previously, leaving Korea to solve her own problems (New World Encyclopedia). 

Following these attacks, the Choson dynasty opted for an isolationist policy which dominated Koreas relationship with her neighbours as well as other countries. During this period of isolation, Korea rebuilt her structures and economy, which had suffered severely as a result of the wars. Under the isolationist policy which led Korea to be referred to as the hermit kingdom, Korea restricted her relations with the outside world to Mongolia, China and Northern Asia with which she conducted trade. There was also limited trade with Japan (Lee 68 New World Encyclopedia).

Until the late 19th century, the isolationist policy remained in place and the Choson dynasty only started warming up to other countries, albeit reluctantly, in 1876 when the Treaty of Kanghwa was signed, defining Korea as an independent state, challenging the links between the Choson dynasty and China, and forcibly opening up parts of Korea to exploitation by Japanese nationals. This led Korea to establish diplomatic relations with both China and Japan. Soon, Korea started opening up to the rest of the world and was soon enjoying healthy relationships with the United States, Russia, Britain, Italy and other countries. The Japanese however dominated not only in Korea but also the entire region particularly following its victories in the Sino-Japanese and the Russo-Japanese wars between 1894 and 1905. Following its victory in the Sino-Japanese war in 1895, Japan went ahead to establish her hegemony over Korea through the Treaty of Shimonoseki following which the Japanese leadership dictated a raft of measures which the Korean government was to take to discourage internal disturbances which had intensified as more and more Koreans took up arms against the Japanese. The Koreans however resisted Japanese dominance valiantly, a resistance which culminated in the Japanese assassination of Queen Min who the Japanese accused of encouraging the resistance (Britannica Online Encyclopedia).

Focus of the paper

This paper has concentrated its attention on the social structure and Koreas relations with neighbours and other countries during the Choson dynasty, in history books as one of the longest dynasties in the history of the world. The choice of topics has been informed on the fact that the two were two distinct to Korea and thus set it apart from the her neighbours and from the rest of the world.

Koreas relations with the rest of the world are particularly interesting during the Choson dynasty. Relations between China and Japan were acrimonious and each considered the Korean peninsula a strategic place. China was also the target of attacks by the Manchuria who went on to conquer China. For the Nomadic fighters and the Japanese to reach China, they passed through Korea. In retaliation, China had to defend itself in Korea in an attempt to stop the invading forces. The entry into the fray of Russia, and later Britain and France did not make matters better for Korea. In all these confrontations, Korea was suffering injuries while other powers fought each other. Koreas strategic location made it the interest of these powers, drawing it to battles it had little or no stakes in.

Koreas social stratification was also unique to the country. The system was borrowed from China while Japan has a system not very different from it. However, the Choson dynasty was too strict in the way it practiced the Confucian philosophy, making its social structure too strict and exclusive. It became too difficult for members of one class to move to an upper class. The struggle for liberation, particularly among the slaves, who suffered much abuse from their masters contributed significantly to the weakening of the Choson dynasty.

Nirvana-The Enlightenment.

Before putting an insight into Nirvana, let us become thoroughly familiar with Buddhism and what message it propagates. Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to an Insight into what the true nature of life is. It is a religion which is followed by about 300 million people around the world. But for some people, it is more than a religion. They take it for the way of life. The word Buddhism derives its origin from the word budhi which means to awaken(Buddhism  What is Buddhism ). The origin of Buddhism dates back about 2,500 years ago when Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha was enlightened at the age of 35. Buddhism propagates a very simple message. It teaches leading a life full of moral values, being mindful and developing wisdom needed for every aspect of life. Along with these, it teaches how to lead a happy life. That is why Buddhism has become popular in many countries of the world(Buddhism).

The next question that comes to ones mind is who the Buddha was. Siddhartha Gautama was born of royal parents in Lumbini, presently located in Nepal, in 563 BC. At the age of 29, he came to realize that the materialistic pleasures were not of any meaning. He spent his life meditating and teaching the philosophies of life. Finally, he was enlightened at the age of 35. He taught many things but the concepts of Buddhism can be summarized by the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eight Path( which emphasizes on being moral and mindful). The first truth is that life is full of suffering, pain and disease. Buddhism explains how to avoid suffering and how to lead a happy life. The second truth states that suffering is caused due to desire and hatred. The third noble truth is that suffering can be overcome and true happiness can be obtained. It alludes the ideology of Nirvana. The fourth noble truth is that the eight fold path is the way of ending the suffering. Buddhism depends more on apprehension than faith.

Buddhism preaches an important concept of life, Nirvana. What is Nirvana  The term nirvana is linked with both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both of these religions consider it from a different point of view. It is primarily concerned with Buddhism. It is the supreme state of being free from suffering and individual existence. It is a state of Enlightenment as referred by the Buddhists. It is the ultimate object of all Buddhists(Buddhism Nirvana). The attainment of nirvana breaks the otherwise endless cycle of reincarnations. Buddhists also consider nirvana as freedom from all worldly concerns such as greed, hatred and ignorance. Nirvana cannot be described in words, it can only be experienced. It is a mode of living where mind and soul are in a state of tranquility. In Buddhism Nirvana is described as deathless. It does not refer to materialistic happiness rather it focuses on eternal spiritual happiness.

The word Nirvana is composed of two words nirvana, where nir indicates freedom and vana means path of rebirth. The Nirvana has eightfold dimensions. These are cessation(nirodha), loveliness wholesomeness(subha), Truth(satya), Reality(tathya), eternity(nitya), bliss(sukha), the Self(atma) and complete purity(parisuddhi). All this means that it is that final state which is conducive in the attainment of Eternal, the Self, Bliss, and the Pure.

The history of Nirvana dates back around 5th century B.C. when it was born out of Hinduism in Asia, when a man named Siddhartha Gautama started it as a movement and diverged it to form its Buddhist path. As a young man, Siddhartha Gautama, who later became the Buddha, started questioning the spiritual value of material pleasures and took decision to give up all his possessions and emotional attachments, including his wife and young son. He wanted to apprehend the true nature of life and saw all his attachments as distractions, keeping in mind the Hindu thought.

Then he became a shramana, a wandering, homeless hermit devoted to meditation. He hoped to find enlightenment by completely separating himself from the world, attaching to the polar opposite of his earlier life. Over time, he detached himself farther and farther from the earthly world, to the point that he came close to starvation. But he hadnt achieved enlightenment yet.

He took a bold decision that if he continued on that path, he would die without getting to any understanding. So, he gave up his ascetic life and accepted a meal from a stranger. He decided to tread the middle road, the life between the luxury he had known and the poverty he had known(Tom).
According to legend, soon after Siddhartha accepted this path, he finally achieved enlightenment. As he meditated under a tree, he saw all of his past lives and then the past lives of others. Ultimately he gained a perfect, omniscient knowledge of this world and the world beyond it.

The word Nirvana in Sanskrit means to to extinguish. In this case it means to extinguish ignorance, hatred and earthly suffering. By achieving nirvana, one can escape samsara, the cycle of reincarnation that characterizes both Hinduism and Buddhism. In each life, a soul is given punishment or reward on the basis of its past actions, or karma, from the current life as well as earlier lives. It is significant to note that the law of karma is not because of Gods judgment of a persons behavior. It is similar to Newtons third law of motion- which states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. It just happens on its own wish. This is what Nirvana has in its store house. 

Role of Art in Asian Art History.

Asian art history has contributed significantly to the creation of arts in the East Asia. Asian art embraces an immense variety of cultural and religious inspirations. A wide variety of Asian cultures is highlighted in art history. The prominent developments can be observed in Indian art, Chinese art, and Japanese art. Each one of these arts had a prominent effect on Western art. Thus, the paper will discuss abovementioned three art eras in order to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the role of art in Asian art history and the way art altered its characteristics during different periods.

Indian Art

Indian art is an art of social, political and religious changes in culture. It is a fusion of native and external impacts and holds a distinctive appeal and eccentricity. Indian art, which transformed and advanced with the development of culture or empires, was full of outstanding improvements in the entire spheres of artistic demonstration.

Indian Paintings

The history of Indian paintings reverts to the ancient times and symbolizes the fascinating history of Indian people. Indian paintings offer a striking evidence of a fusion of diverse cultures and a reflection of society, politics and religion. The prehistoric Indian paintings are observed in caves, principally the caves at Bhimbetaka. The painters apply natural tinctures and animals fats in cave or wall paintings. Moreover, these depict animals, hunting, everyday life and religious imagery of earlier times. These cave paintings are more or less 12,000 years old. The early wall paintings are found in Buddhist cave shrines and monasteries all over India. Wall paintings indicate a love of naturalism and got distinction in the caves of Ajanta, Bagh, and
 Badami, all through the era between 200 BC to 700 CE (Havell, pp. 18-25).

The wall paintings at Ajanta symbolize the development of monastery and represent an outlook into the life of the Buddha. The medieval Indian paintings include manuscript painting. This miniature art was scrupulous brushwork done on palm leaves with a concept of symbolism. The themes of miniature paintings were taken from myths, stories or religious images. In 16th century, Mughal Emperor Humayun brought first miniature paintings from Persia. These miniatures repeatedly represent court scenes and individuals or folks. Mughal art was a fusion of Persian and Indian styles comprising rich colors, abstract designs with secular themes. Books and Indian Persian epics, in the reign of Emperor Akbar, magnified and personified with miniature art (Havell, pp. 11-12).

The Mughal rulers in 16th and 17th centuries valued these patterned paintings of manuscripts and albums and funded them as well. At the end of 17th century, Aurangzeb dispersed the court workshops and from this point onward, Mughal painting progressively revealed the transfer of power and patronage equally. Modern painting in India at present is not only inspired by ways of life, but with contemporary thoughts, philosophies and modes.  Modern art may be abstract or figurative but an impact of traditional Indian and Persian painting with modern art can be noticed.

Indian Sculptures

The history of Indian sculpture also noticed various transformations over the ages. The pattern of Indian sculpture dates back to the Indus Valley civilization. During that era, statues and figures made of bronze and stones were very popular. This art was origination of third millennium during the period of Maurya Dynasty (Havell, pp. 37-42). The art of Sculptures dominated themes inspired by daily life and court life with figures of Hindu gods and goddesses and Buddha. The supreme illustration of this art was great Baths of Mohenjodaro of Indus Valley Civilization. The expertise of Indian sculptors can be identified by taking a quick view of the Temples of Khajuraho of 11th century AD, Temples of Ellora and Sun Temple of Konark. Muslim rulers introduced completely different patterns of sculpture ((Havell, pp. 49-53). It enhanced the splendor of religious places. The modern Indian Sculptures were entirely different from Muslim Sculptures and were profoundly rooted in Indian History and tradition.

Indian Architecture

Indian architecture includes hordes of expressions over time. Indian architecture evolved over the time with the impact of various invaders who fetched their diverse styles with them. Earliest Hindu architecture goes back with Panini and Patanjali. The dominant and magnificent among temples were Brihadeeswara Temple and Sun Temple (Havell, pp. 23-25).

It was during Ashoka Empire that Buddhism gained status and fame. The most prominent among the ancient architecture of India are the temples of Stupas (hemispherical mound for worship), Chaityas (place of worship) and Viharas (monastery). These represent three building types. Earliest Hindu architecture goes back with Panini and Patanjali. The initial architecture indicate traces of Vedic altars and late Vedic temples and the later emerged the Dravidian  Southern style and Indo-Aryan  Nagara style of architecture (Havell, pp. 56-59). The dominant and magnificent among them were Brihadeeswara Temple and Sun Temple.
The largely admired Islamic building style in India is the tomb or the mausoleum that evolved during Mughal era. Indian architecture was somewhat modified as per the traditions of new religion, on the arrival of Islam but the nature and temperament was solely Indian. The most renowned are the Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) and the Taj Mahal (Agra). Later, the planning of Chandigarh was the first step towards the Modern Architecture of India and innovative directions were sought for a momentous architecture (Havell, pg. 105).

Chinese Art

Chinese art has assorted in the course of its prehistoric times splitting up into phases by Dynasties of China. Diverse forms of Chinese art have been influenced politically, religiously and culturally covering fine arts (aesthetics), folk arts (culture and civilization) and performance arts (painting, architecture, music and sculpture) (Chinese Cultural Studies, 2009).

Chinese Painting

Chinese painting began as far as the Neolithic Age with painted pottery particularly with human faces, deer, fish and frogs (Sullivan, pg. 5). The development in Chinese painting from ancient to modern revealed the change in time and social circumstances. These paintings can be found in Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou in Southwest China Fujian in East and Mount Yinshan in Inner Mongolia Atlai in west and Heihe in North (Chinese Cultural Studies, 2009). Warring States Period noticed a push to the silk painting but reached at peak in Han Dynasty. It followed the introduction to Buddhism to Chinese in first century, from India. This era witnessed the prominence of religious murals, stone and brick carvings. Figurative art or painting flourished during the Tang Dynasty (ChinatownConnection, 2009).

The period of Yuan Dynasty signifies high standard landscape painting which had an impact on the painting of Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty. The end of Qing Dynasty saw the origin of Shanghai Painting School. This school played its role in evolution of modern art out of classical one (ChinatownConnection, 2009). In 17th century, oil painting was introduced in China. This Western art got fame in early 20th century and it boomed in 1980s. Folk painting, which dates back to Qing and Han Dynasties, got popularity in Song Dynasty and reached its peak in the Qing Dynasty (Sullivan, pg. 60).

Chinese Sculpture

Chinese were expert artisans who formed excellent bronze sculptures. It was in Chou period that this art reached its zenith. The enormous ritual vessels used for worship by gentry are the best examples of this period. The tombs of Han Empire show a vivid selection of carvings in jade, clay figures of people, animals and household vessels. The most glorious tomb of this century was Shi Huangdi at Xian, China (ChinatownConnection, 2009). One of its chambers uncovered an army of 6,000 full size terracotta soldiers and the other possessed 1,400 ceramic figures of cavalrymen and chariots. During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist art prospered. The terracotta figures of that period were magnificent with replacement of iron. Religious sculptures were made in stone form. Chinese sculpture lost evaded with the drop of Buddhism in the Sung period (960-1279). However, appealing and remarkable works were persistently created, for instance, the Bodhisattvas (ChinatownConnection, 2009).

Chinese Architecture

Chinese architecture is rare in architectural history. Though the essential elements have transformed yet the ground philosophy at the back of style is identical. An eminent instance of Chinese architecture is the Forbidden City where halls are spacious more like Western structures. Chinese architecture has a long history and as old as the Chinese. Chinese architecture represents the authority and power of ruling dynasties over people stressing the significance of people instead of gods (ChinatownConnection, 2009).

Japanese Art

Japanese have a lengthy history stretched from 10th B.C, to present with an aptitude to mimic and take in alien cultures. Japanese art encompasses diverse styles and modes of art like sculpture (bronze and wood), painting (ink and silk) and ancient architecture and ceramics.

Japanese Painting   

Painting is certainly the most admired and most studied of all Japanese art forms, with its sophistication, directness as well as complexity. Japanese painting style was significantly inspired by Chinese painting styles. Through Muromachi period (1338-1573), Chinese paintings started paving their way into the homes of affluent Japanese as an outcome of trade with China. However, Japanese did not imitate it entirely (Mason, pp. 12-17). They merged it with Japanese tastes. Chinese style Ink painting became popular in Muromachi period (1392-1573). In the subsequent Momoyama period (1573-1603), the traditional style of landscape painting was expanded, most frequently formed on huge screens. An innovative painting technique appeared during the Edo period (1603-1867) where complete bits were painted with gold leaf settings, creating an effect like religious montage of the Western Medieval period (Mason, pp. 56-63).
During this period, great masterpieces of carving were created with a requirement of miniature sculptures. Later, a fresh sort of art developed in the form of wood-block prints that attracted the feudal along with the lower class. Throughout 19th century, a small number of print designers achieved distinction, but no master emerged to equate their antecedents. The majority of 20th century painters were influenced by Western styles and in lacquer ware, ceramics and textiles they were universally acknowledged.

Japanese Sculpture

One of the widely esteemed art forms in Japan is sculpture. All through Japanese history, sculptures were of diverse modes like made of clay, bronze, stone, dry lacquer and wood. The Joman period (2200 BC) witnessed the initial form of sculpture made of clay. The ancient sculptures from this period often were figurines (Mason, pp. 63-67). One example of this is a strange sculpture. It is a little figure with heart-shaped head and a tiny, circular mouth. Japanese sculpture is stunning and Buddhism is the centre of its attention. The earliest dogu and the haniwa figures were formed of clay with a legend at the back of their structure and formation.Japanese architecture

Japanese architecture began in 57 BC. Majority structures were pit dwellings but Japan progressed as the time passed. Initial forms of Japanese architecture resembles with Korean architecture. Some ancient instances include Iksan and Miruksa. Horyuji, a temple in Nara, built in Korean style, dates back to the Asuka period. Architecture during the Nara period (710-794) was inclined by the Tang style, portrayed by firm and reasonable magnitude. Domestic architecture during the Muromachi period (1333-1573) observed the excellence of the shoin-zukuri style, which is the pioneer of the style of the contemporary Japanese house with tatami mats covering floors (Mason, pp. 20-23).The Momoyama period (1573-1603) brought about an improved knowledge of culture, through merchants who combined assets through abroad trade. An example is the fame and increase of the tea ceremony. This style still exists in architecture today.

Difficulties faced by Middle East empires.

Historians view the core Middle East to be the region stretching from the Nile to the Ox us. The region also includes North Africa and Turkey which are regarded as the peripheral parts of the Middle East (Gelvin, 2005, p. 10).  Three major events are regarded as having been primarily behind the rise of Middle East to what it is today. First, the large empires notably the Ottoman Empire that spanned for four centuries, the revolution in European commerce during the period and the protestant reformation which was behind a politically aggressive Europe. The rise of modern Middle East endured a turbulent past due to its wars, the impoverished millions, the rich few, the authoritarian politics, stagnant economies and an almost fatalistic attitude towards religion that has been the basis of some of the greatest fatalities in the 21st century.  The interest of the Western nations in Middle East had developed well in the start of the 20th century especially buoyed by the oil reserves found in the area. The entry of Europe to the region was not smooth as the ruling empires saw it as a threat to their sovereignty (Sullivan, 2009, p. 1). A major difficulty included poor finances since the empires had gradually weakened as a result of poor leadership. This meant that the empires were not fully able to adapt to some of the new introductions brought by the western foreigners. Another major issue that faced the empires in adapting to the west was the religious conflicts between their Islamic faith and the foreigners Christian values.  There was also a language barrier that barred the sultans to effectively make trade deals with the oncoming European powers. In addition, there was a power conflict as the Western powers aimed at establishing themselves therefore overriding the powers of the ruling Sultans.

It can be concluded that due to the challenges faced by the empires, new modalities had to be adopted including education systems, infrastructure and social amenities which relied heavily on the west and served as a link between the western nations and the local empires. Some of the changes put in place to overcome the barriers were the restructuring of legislative practices which led to the creation of new constitution and establishment of legislative bodies. There was also an attempt of adopting new education and political systems which gradually eroded the power of the traditional empires.

Peoples Reactions to Westernization

The major determinants of people reactions to western civilization incursion in the area were primarily based on their religious views and customs. Their reactions were also partly a reflection of the government stand on western civilization. The Islamic hold on social and individual interpretations was the base upon which westernization was viewed. First, Islam formulated the life ideals that individuals would practice in their private lives. In addition, it defined enemies as those people who were not practicing the Islamic way of faith. As such, westernization was initially viewed as the perfect enemy due to its practice of alien and enemy religions such as Christianity. The intrusion of westernization to the political and economic fronts of the country was associated by the people as the genesis of poverty in the region. In the modern world, extremist Muslims who combine fundamentalist Islamic faith and Marxist ideas continue to incite the Muslims against the west based on this notion. From the western point of view, this ideology is wrong since it is evident that the western countries have grown more after their withdrawal from their colonies that when they were in the colonies. The introduction of a westernized economic pattern that rewarded the educated elite was socially accepted in the communities. As urban areas grew gradually, the elite who had acquired a western education were able to afford good jobs and therefore lived in better parts of the urban areas. The trading patterns of the West was also positively received as people viewed it as an improvement of the restricted trade practices they had endured during the Islamic Ottoman empire.  The people also welcomed an organized judicial system that replaced the atrocious jihad system which was strictly based on Islamic faith. Westernization was positively welcomed especially by the non-Muslim communities who had endured a tyrannical legacy under the past Islamic empires. It can be summarized here that westernization was viewed as a double edged sword in the Middle East. Its economic and social benefits were embraced while its religious and social cultural interferences were strongly resisted.

Competition over Persia

Persia, currently known as Iran, has a long history spanning several thousand years. The history spans from the earliest known kingdom of Elam (2700 BC- 539 BC) to todays Islamic Republic of Iran. Persia has had a considerable occupation and competition by world superpowers which have at every turn altered and influenced developmental patterns for the country. The most notable foreign invasions have been by the Arabs, Mongols, Turks, Russians and British. The British forces began incursion in Iran in the empire in the 17th century (Gelvin, 2005 p. 147). Countries such as Portugal, France, Imperial Russia and Great Britain established colonial footholds in the region which made Iran loose its sovereignty through the Gulistan and Turkmanchai treaties among others. The major item for competition in the region by the foreign powers was oil. Britain was the premier discoverer of oil in the region which resulted to the formation of a British oil company, Anglo-Iranian Oil Company which is referred to as BP in the modern world. In their incursion, the colonial powers divided the Persian regime into regions of influence which meant that every colonial power had an area of supreme authority. The major region competition was however between the Russians and the British. To end the conflict, a codified agreement, the Anglo-Russian entente was entered into in 1907 between the two powers to divide the entire country into regions of influence where their rule and exploration would be concentrated. This period was also characterized by a unique westernization in the countrys politics as the Iranian natives pushed for a new constitutional regime and the exit of the traditional Shah ruler. Through the influence of British and Russias, the country got a constitution in 1906 and convened its first parliament (Majlis) in October, 1906 (Shaw, 1976). The occupation by the foreign forces and adoption of an organized constitution were instrumental in establishing stability in the region.

Major Problems Faced by the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was established by Osman I around the beginning of the 14th century. The empire progressed so that at its zenith, it had acquired substantial wealth and controlled massive territories including North Africa, the Middle East and Europe. The empire would then span for a period of over 600 years under the leadership of different Sultans. Its demise occurred gradually primarily as a result of external pressures and internal degeneration. Some of the major problems that contributed to the demise were

Declining power of the sultanate at the beginning of the empire, the sultanate was well organized and there was a clear criteria for selecting successors. The succeeding successors especially Sultan Suleyman and Selim did not input zeal and prudence in governance and that weakened the base for succeeding Sultans to govern the empire. The progressive prosperity of the sultanate led the sons brought up in the Sultans Harlem to be lazy and incompetent for running the empire.

Another major cause of the decline was a weakening central government. At its start, the empire had a strong central government whose control emanated from the ruling sultan. As succeeding Sultans became less and less competent, peripheral sections of the empire became more autonomous. This weakened the Sultanate capital and military base and eventually led to its collapse which was precipitated by individual countries in North Africa clamoring for independence while Greece began its clamor for sovereignty (Khater, 2003).

The empire also underwent economic stagnation which was triggered by its instability to adopt changes that were occurring in other parts of the world. The empire had for a long time served as an important trade link between Europe and Asia and this connection served positively in enhancing its economy. Development in Europe in the 19th and 20th century enabled them to develop new trade routes that by-passed the Ottoman Empire therefore decreasing its trade and economic prowess. The disillusionment of the army commanders in the Ottoman Empire due to its demise propelled some army commanders such as Murat and Mahmet Ali to organize other conventional armies to strengthen the empire. This army comprised of young soldiers primarily of Turkish origin who were trained in the Islamic ways and general life of the Ottoman Empire (Shaw 26). In a way, the young Turks helped in prolonging the life of the empire since they were royal to the empire and were not motivated by money and power as those who were directly in the sultanate.

Enduring Western Influence in the Middle East

Unlike in other parts of the world where westernization involved a complete cultural transformation through direct rule or assimilation, the entry of western ideals in middle East have done little to change the social cultural foundations of the people. It is to be noted here that the Middle East is fundamentally established in Islam and any Western influence is filtered through the teachings of Koran. Despite this, there have been fronts where western influence has proliferated albeit unconsciously. First, the Middle East relies entirely on the West for technology training and as such, their technological infrastructure such as roads, vehicles and military equipments are heavily reliant on the western civilization. Also, the structuring of the Middle East systems of education borrows to a great extent in the western content. As such, course content in areas such as medicine, engineering, pharmacy and other departments are a reflection of the west. In regard to the media, the Middle East has borrowed greatly from the west and their stations operate on westernized models. Examples are Al Jazeera whose modus operandi resembles that of the CNN. In terms of media content, the media in Middle East has over time progressed from strict religiously bound reporting to more secularist attitudes. This is evident in the movies and American culture flashed in a majority of Middle East media.

Another influence that established as a result of westernization was a growing bureaucracy in governance modeled along western lines. The traditional forms of government where almost all people were equal were eroded gradually and this had an effect on the social structures that evolved. Social classes emerged with the politicians and the elite occupying modern suburbs and villas in the emerging urban areas while the poor people elected semi permanent residences all over the emerging urban areas (Burke  Yaghoubian, 2006, p. 17).  Westernization however did not affect units such as the family kinship, religious ideals, social activities such as marriages and burials. It can be conclusively said that westernization affected the political, economic and social stratas of the society but had little influence on religious and family values and activities.